Englisch

Vowels are highlighted.

/ˈkrɪstəfə/

Vowels are highlighted.

/ˈmiːnˌwaɪl/

Vowels are highlighted.

BE:  /fəˈtɒɡrəfi/     AE:  /fəˈtɑːɡrəfi/ 

Vowels are highlighted.

/ɪɡˈzækt/

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The universalist approach examines what all languages have in common, while the relativist approach deals with the way how languages differ from one another, and how this difference influence the ways of how speakers think.

There is a difference between the linguistic meaning and physical meaning of the slogan.

Linguistically:  Suggesting lack of hazard
The linguistic form “empty” would make us draw the conclusion that the drums are not dangerous.

Physically:  Yes, because the drums might contain explosive vapour which is extremely dangerous.

The Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis consists of two versions.
The strong version is known as linguistic determinism which says language determines thoughts.
The weak version is known as linguistic relativity which states that our perception of the world is influenced by language

Broad transcription refers to phonemic transcription which disregards all allophonic differences, i.e. a set of multiple possible spoken sounds to pronounce a phoneme.

Narrow transcription, in contrast, does indicate the allophonic differences.

Vowels are highlighted.

/ˋhæpinəs/ or  /ˋhæpɪnəs/

Consonants are produced when the air-stream is obstructed in the throat, or in the vocal tract before it leaves the body through the mouth or nose.

/milk/ or /mɪlk/

He should be able to produce two-word utterances, such as “baby chair” and “mommy eat”.

The Comprehensible Input Hypothesis was proposed by Stephen Krashen.
It suggests that learners will acquire language best when the input is made to the comprehensible level.
Learner’s knowledge of context will then fill in the missing bits and learners will be able to understand any new language items.
It also suggests that as teacher talk is similar to child direct speech in first language acquisition, similar modification techniques can enable learners to acquire a second language.
However, this hypothesis neglects that L2 learners would need enormous quantities of L2 even if the teacher talk theory is true.    

The avoidance strategy means that learners only use linguistic structures that they are familiar with. 
As a result, their language competence cannot be accurately evaluated.

Mathematics is learned through a conscious process of accumulating knowledge, typically in an institutional setting.

It is not acquired, because ability doesn’t gradually develop without conscious effort, as in the development of an L1 by young children

Sentence (b) is more context-dependent as certain details of the context, including the speaker’s identity, are needed in order to assess its truth.

In contrast, the truth of sentence (a) in no way depends on who says it, but just on fact/history.

Possible answers:  
The speaker has a good friend who is identified as “Luke”.  
Luke did linguistics before.   
Luke left England.  

This in (a) performs a deitic and symbolic function,  

while this in (b) performs a non-deitic and non-anaphoric function.