Englisch

Consonants are produced when the air-stream is obstructed in the throat, or in the vocal tract before it leaves the body through the mouth or nose.

/milk/ or /mɪlk/

He should be able to produce two-word utterances, such as “baby chair” and “mommy eat”.

The Comprehensible Input Hypothesis was proposed by Stephen Krashen.
It suggests that learners will acquire language best when the input is made to the comprehensible level.
Learner’s knowledge of context will then fill in the missing bits and learners will be able to understand any new language items.
It also suggests that as teacher talk is similar to child direct speech in first language acquisition, similar modification techniques can enable learners to acquire a second language.
However, this hypothesis neglects that L2 learners would need enormous quantities of L2 even if the teacher talk theory is true.    

The avoidance strategy means that learners only use linguistic structures that they are familiar with. 
As a result, their language competence cannot be accurately evaluated.

Mathematics is learned through a conscious process of accumulating knowledge, typically in an institutional setting.

It is not acquired, because ability doesn’t gradually develop without conscious effort, as in the development of an L1 by young children

Sentence (b) is more context-dependent as certain details of the context, including the speaker’s identity, are needed in order to assess its truth.

In contrast, the truth of sentence (a) in no way depends on who says it, but just on fact/history.

Possible answers:  
The speaker has a good friend who is identified as “Luke”.  
Luke did linguistics before.   
Luke left England.  

This in (a) performs a deitic and symbolic function,  

while this in (b) performs a non-deitic and non-anaphoric function.

It's our ability to modify our speech style toward or away from the perceived style of person we are talking to.

Attempts to reduce social distance.  (Annäherung)

• Situational register,  e.g. church, school, hospital
• Occupational register,  e.g. among lawyers, among teachers, among doctors
• Topical register,  e.g. about law, about language

e.g.

• linguistics register:  morphology, syntax, diglossia
• Medical register:  gyn and obs, zanoxyn

to make a mistake or screw up something

somebody is over excited to get something

It is very cold outside.

Restricted code:

• (‚simple’, working class) code: ‚loose’ syntax;
• simple coordination (and, but);
• clichés;
• implicit reference (pronouns, sometimes it is also unclear what these refer to)

Elaborated code

• (‚complex’, middle class) code: syntax formally correct;
• more logical connectives (unless, if);
• originality;
• explicit reference

Restricted code

Elaborated code

Culture = the ideas and assumptions about the nature of things and people that we learn when we become members of social groups

"socially acquired language"

1. a universalist perspective
   What do all languages have in common?
   What are universals?
   Assumptions connected to this are: The human mind has a "module" equipping humans to have language.
    
2. a relativist perspective
   In what way do languages differ?
   In what way might such differences influence the way speakers of different languages think?

• Language relates closely to worldview
   
• Different languages reflect different worldviews
   
• e.g. kinship terms, time concept, gender

• Classifiers indicate the type or "class" of noun is involved
   
• Swahili:  different prefixes used as classifiers for
  • humans  (wa-)
  • non-humans  (mi-)
  • artifacts  (vi-)
     
• Japanese: 
  • "long thin things"  (hon)
  • "flat thin things"  (mai)
  • "small round things"  (ko)

• Banana ni-hon  ("two bananas")
• Syatu ni-mai  ("two shirts")
• Ringo ni-ko  ("two apples")

• Social gender  (vs. biological gender and grammatical gender)
   
• Gendered language use
  • Sidamo language  =  "milk"  (ado by men and gurda by women)
     
• Increase in the use of gender-neutral language
  • firefighters  instead of  firemen
  • police officers  instead of  policemen

Guidelines for gender-neutral language  (Language Portal of Canada, 2014)

1. Replace generic masculine pronouns  (he, his)  by rewriting your sentence in one of the following ways:  Recast your sentence in the plural.
   • Example:  Each participant must present his ID badge at the door.
   • Revised:  All participants must present their ID badges at the door.
      
2. Avoid patronizing expressions, and use woman instead of girl or lady unless you are referring to a minor. 
   • Example: One of the lovely ladies in the office will answer your call.
   • Revised: One of the administrative assistants will answer your call.
      
   • Example: If you need anything, just let the girl at the desk know.
   • Revised: If you need anything, just let my assistant know.

average person, ordinary person

best person for the job

layperson, non-specialist

human beings, humanity, humans, individuals, people

husband and wife, partners

humankind

artificial, handmade, manufacturde, synthetic

personnel, staff, workers, workforce

to operate, to staff (to man = bemannen, besetzen, bedienen)