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2. Personality and society (late adulthood) 2.1 Personality and mortality (Sterblichkeit)
- depression and suicide
- mood disorder (feeling deeply unhappy, demoralized, self-derogatory [selbstabwertend], and unmotivated)
- ca. 10-15% of older adults suffer from depression, up to 30% in nursing homes
- increasing suicide rates (esp. for men) in old age
- medication/psychotherapy lead to improvements in ca. 80% of cases
3. Families and social relationships (late adulthood) 3.1 Lifestyle diversity
- married people are happier, less distressed, live longer (than singles)
- older married adults are happier with marriage than younger adults
- divorces in old age linked to more financial, physical, and social consequences
- increasing number of cohabiting older adults
- children’s support more from daughters than from sons
3. Families and social relationships (late adulthood)
3.2 Friends and networks
- importance of close friendships
- friendships more important than family relations to predict mental health
- friends provide emotionaly intimacy, companionship, and community integration
- older adults with close friends live longer (larger effect for women than men)
3. Families and social relationships (late adulthood)
3.2 Friends and networks
- importance of social support and social integration
- better physical and mental health, lower institutionalization rate and mortality
- loneliness and social isolation as risk factors (cf. „men as social animal“)
3. Families and social relationships (late adulthood)
3.2 Friends and networks
- importance of altruism and volunteerism for older adults
- linked to mental and physical health, life satisfaction, mortality
5. Successful aging
- important factors
- emphasis (Betonung) on the positive aspects of aging
1. Defining death and life/death issues
- classical definition of death:
- no breathing,
- no blood pressure,
- rigidity of the body
1. Defining death and life/death issues
- brain death
brain death = no electrical activity in brain for a specified period
- lower brain regions die later (thus heartbeat and respiration still possible)
1. Defining death and life/death issues
- decisions about death
- signing of living will (Patientenverfügung)
- legal questions of when to stop life-sustaining procedures (lebenserhaltende Maßnahmen)
- medical diagnosis of „terminally ill“
1. Defining death and life/death issues
- euthanasia (Sterbehilfe)
- passive (withholding available treatment)
- active (deliberate introduction of death, e.g. by delivering drugs)
1. Defining death and life/death issues
- need for better care for dying persons
- hospice and palliative care (Hospiz, Palliativpflege)
2. Death and sociohistorical contexts
- historically changed features
- relatively fewer deaths of children and younger parents, and less often at home
- most die in older age and at institutions (hospitals, nursing homes, hospice etc.)
2. Death and sociohistorical contexts
- large culture variations
- specific beliefs about death (e.g., life after death, reincarnation)
- specific rituals associated with death
- Western cultures mostly death avoiders and deniers (Vermeider und Leugner)
3. Facing one’s own death
- Kübler-Ross’ (1969) stages of dying
1. denial and isolation („No, it can’t be.“) 2. anger („Why me?“) 3. bargaining („What can I do?“) 4. depression („Let me alone.“)
- necessary stage to disconnect oneself from loved ones
- need to contemplate abouth one’s death (and life)
5. acceptance („Let it be.“)
- finding a sense of peace (end of the dying struggle)
3. Facing one’s own death
- general
evaluation: no empirical evidence available (Kastenbaum, 2007)
- with age decreasing fear of death
- perceived control as coping strategy (and prolonging life)
- denial can be both adaptive and maladaptive
4. Coping with the death of someone else 4.1 Communicating with a dying person
- consequences of open awareness of dying for oneself and others
- chance to close life according to own ideas
- chance to complete plans and projects (open matters)
- make decisions about funeral and burying
- chance for life review, alone and with others
- better understanding of dying process
- effective communication strategies
4. Coping with the death of someone else
4.2 Grieving
- grief as a complex emotional reaction to the loss of someone close
- pining or yearning (sehnsüchtig sein)
- separation anxiety (Trennungsangst)
- despair and sadness (Verzweiflung und Traurigkeit), hopelessness, apathy
4. Coping with the death of someone else
4.2 Grieving
- no clear stages, more ups-and-downs
- about 80-90% of survivors return to normal grief after about six months
4. Coping with the death of someone else
4.2 Grieving
- remaining 10-20% develop „complicated grief“
- difficulty to return to normal life
- strong depressive symptoms
- negative consequences for physical and mental health
- therapeutic interventions helpful
coping depends on type of death (sudden vs. forseeable)!
4. Coping with the death of someone else
4.2 Grieving
- Finding a new sense
- need for adjusting to personal, social, financial consequences
- importance of social support
development
- the pattern of movement or changes that starts at conception and continues through the human life.
life-span perspective (Baltes, 1987, 2003)
- development is lifelong, multidimensional, multidirectional, plastic, multidisciplinary, and contextual
- development involves growth, maintenance, and regulation
- development is co-constructed through biological, sociocultural, and individual factors
maximum lifespan vs. life expectancy (Lebenserwartung)
- Ein Mensch kann maximal 122 Jahre alt werden
- Die Lebenserwartung ist im Laufe der Jahre gestiegen, heute liegt sie in den USA bei 78 Jahren.
context
= historical, economic, social, and cultural factors
- normative age-graded influences
- normative history-graded influences
- non-normative life events
Some contemporary (zeitgenössiche) concerns
• health and well-being (Gesundheit) • parenting and education (Elternschaft und Erziehung) • sociocultural contexts and diversity • social policy (Sozialpolitik)
The nature of development
2.1 Biological, cognitive, and socioemotional processes
• biological (e.g., brain growth, motor skills, puberty) • cognitive (e.g., language, intelligence, problem solving) • socioemotional (e.g., social relations, emotions, personality)
The nature of development
2.2 Periods of development
developmental period
= time frame that is characterized by a certain feature
The nature of development
2.2 Periods of development
typically used age ranges
1. prenatal period (conception [Empfängnis] to birth, 9 months) 2. infancy (birth to 18-24 months; Babys, Kleinkinder) 3. early childhood (2 to 5-6 years; Vorschulkinder) 4. middle and late childhood (6 to 11 years; Schulkinder) 5. adolescence (10-12 to 18-22 years; Jugendliche) 6. early adulthood (ca. 20 to 40 years) 7. middle adulthood (ca. 40 to 60 years)
The nature of development
2.2 Periods of development
conceptions of age
- chronological vs. biological (health), psychological (adaptive capacities) and social age
The nature of development
2.3 Developmental Issues
• nature-nurture debate (Natur-Umwelt-Debatte)
• nature-nurture debate (Natur-Umwelt-Debatte) – importance of mutual (wechselseitige) dependencies
The nature of development
2.3 Developmental Issues
stability and change
- possibly shifting in the course of the lifespan
The nature of development
2.3 Developmental Issues
continuity and discontinuity
- gradual changes vs. stepwise development
3. Theories of development
3.1 Psychoanalytic theories
A. Sigmund Freud’s (1856-1939) theory
main assumptions:
- origin of problems in early experiences
- primary role of sexuality
- importance of unconscious processes [1.13]
- types of conflict resolution
+ 5 psychosexual stages of development
Theories of Development
1) Psychoanalytic Theories
- Freud
- Erik Eriksons psychosocial theory
2) Cognitive Theories
- Jean Piagets cognitive developmental theory
- Vygotskis sociocultural cognitive theory
- the information processing theory
3) Behavioral and social cognitive theories
- Burrhus Skinner’s (1904-1990) operant conditioning (behaviorism)
- Albert Bandura’s (1925- ) social cognitive theory
4) Ethological theories
- Konrad Lorenz (1903-1989)
- John Bowlby (1907-1990)
- Evolutionary psychology
5) Ecological theory
- Urie Bronfenbrenner (1917-2005)
3. Theories of development
3.1 Psychoanalytic theories
Erik Erikson’s (1902-1994) psychosocial theory
- lifespan perspective of development
- 8 stages with unique developmental tasks (crisis) to be solved
3. Theories of development
3.1 Psychoanalytic theories
A. Sigmund Freud’s (1856-1939) theory
- 5 psychosexual stages of development
- Orale Phase
- Anale Phase
- Ödipale Phase
- Latenzphase
- Genitale Phase
Cognitive theories
- Jean Piaget’s (1896-1980) cognitive developmental theory
- role of cognitive schemata to understand the world
- assimilation and accomodation
- 4 qualitative stages of children’s cognitive development
Cognitive theories 2.Lev Vygotski’s (1896-1934) sociocultural cognitive theory
- impact of social interactions and culture
- learning to use inventions of a society (like language, mathematics etc.)
- gradual cognitive development
Cognitive Therories
3. The information-processing theory
- gradually increasing capacity for imformation processing
Behavioral and social cognitive theories
- Burrhus Skinner’s (1904-1990) operant conditioning (behaviorism)
- role of rewards and punishments to shape behavior
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Cartes-fiches
3. Social contexts 3.1 The family family types
family types
3. Social contexts 3.1 The family
- increasing percentage of unmarried (single) mothers
- increasing percentage of unmarried (single) mothers
1. Physical growth and development in infancy 1.1 Patterns of growth
- changes in proportion head/body
• changes in proportion head/body
1. Physical growth and development in infancy
1.1 Patterns of growth
- two general growth patterns
1. cephalocaudal pattern (from head to tail) 2. proximodistal (from body center to extremities)
1. Physical growth and development in infancy
1.1 Patterns of growth
- brain development
1. neurogenesis (Neurogenese) 2. connectivity (Synaptogenese) 3. myelination (Myelinisierung) 4. pruning (Pruning)
1. Physical growth and development in infancy
1.1 Patterns of growth
brain growth
- brain growth and pruning in different brain areas (Heterochronie)
1. Physical growth and development in infancy
1.1 Patterns of growth
- plasticity
- plasticity (Plastizität), importance of early experiences
1. Physical growth and development in infancy
1.2 Sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS) (plötzlicher Kindstod)
- about 3,000 cases/year in USA
- mostly between 1-3 months of age
2. Motor development
2.1 The dynamic systems view
- movement, development of new behavior etc
movement = interaction of motivation, perception, and motor skills
- children actively modulate and fine-tune assembled motor parts to new tasks
- development of new behavior depends on …
– development of nervous system – body’s physical properties and possibilities for movement – child’s goal and environmental support
2. Motor development
2.2 Reflexes
basic reflexes = built-in automatic and involuntary reactions to specific stimuli
- some disappear after few months, others persist into adulthood
2. Motor development
2.3 Gross motor skills (Grobmotorik)
- typical milestones of gross motor development during first year
- variability in onset (2-4 months) and in sequence
2. Motor development
2.4 Fine motor skills (Feinmotorik)
- development of reaching and grasping up to pincer grip (Pinzettengriff)
- importance of perceptual-motor coupling
3. Sensory and perceptual development 3.1 Exploring sensory and perceptual development sensation
=physical stimuli that are registered by sense organs
3. Sensory and perceptual development 3.1 Exploring sensory and perceptual development
- perception
= cognitive interpretation of what is sensed
3. Sensory and perceptual development 3.1 Exploring sensory and perceptual development
- methods of studying infant´s perception
- visual preference method: studying ability to distinguish two objects with different features by measuring gaze time
- habituation and dishabituation: reaction to repeated or new stimulus
3. Sensory and perceptual development
3.2 Visual Perception
- visual acuity (Sehschärfe) and color
- acuity improves to adult level until end of first year
- only green and red at birth, all cones (Zapfen) fully developed with 2 months
3. Sensory and perceptual development
3.2 Visual Perception
- perceiving patterns (Mustererkennung)
- preference for patterned vs. plain displays (Fantz, 1963)
- preference for faces
3. Sensory and perceptual development
3.2 Visual Perception
- depth perception (Tiefenwahrnehmung)
- visual cliff experiments (Gibson & Walk, 1960), no crossing with 6-12 months
- first use of binocular depth cues with 3-4 months
3. Sensory and perceptual development
3.3 Hearing
- prenatal listening ability in the last 2 months
- newborns sensitive to human speech sounds
- newborns recognize voice of familiar caregiver
- improvements in perception of loudness, pitch (Tonhöhe), and localization during first 2 years
4. Cognitive development 4.1 Piaget’s theory
- (adaptation)
- schemata
- active construction of internal representation of the world (adaptation)
- coding in schemes (Schemata) = organized knowledge
4. Cognitive development
4.1 Piaget’s theory
- assimilation
- equilibration
- assimilation and accomodation; organization
- equilibration (Äquilibration) to resolve cognitive conflict
4. Cognitive development
4.2 Piaget sensorimotor stage
- first stage in Piaget's theory (Sensumotorische Stufe; from birth to 2)
- coordinating sensory experiences with physical, motoric actions
4. Cognitive development
4.2 Piaget sensorimotor stage
- substages
yeah
4. Cognitive development
4.2 Piaget sensorimotor stage
- specific errors
- missing object permanence (until 8 months)
- A-not-B-error (until 12 months)
4. Cognitive development
4.2 Piaget sensorimotor stage
- evaluation
- some processes not crucial to reach next stage
- some processes occur earlier than proposed, e.g. object permanence
4. Cognitive Development
4.3 Learning, remembering, and conzeptualization
- role of operant conditioning
- crib-mobile experiments (Rovee-Collier, 1987)
4. Cognitive Development
4.3 Learning, remembering, and conzeptualization
- attention
- development of focused attention
- importance of joint attention (first with 7, mastered with 11 months)
4. Cognitive Development
4.3 Learning, remembering, and conzeptualization
- imitation
- newborns imitating facial expressions (Meltzoff, 2005)
- deferred imitation of specific action (with 9 months)
4. Cognitive Development
4.3 Learning, remembering, and conzeptualization
- memory
- implicit memory for 1.5 to 2 years (for 2-6 month-olds)
- explicit memory (first with 6 months, then gradually improving)
- infantile (or childhood) amnesia
4. Cognitive Development
4.3 Learning, remembering, and conzeptualization
- concept formation and categorization
- forming of conceptual categories (with 7-9 months)
5. Language development 5.1 How language develops
- recognizing language sounds
- universal phoneme detection (up to 6 months)
- improvement for own language, loss for others (from 6-12 months)
5. Language development 5.1 How language develops
- stages
- crying (from birth on)
- cooing (1-2 months; Gurren)
- babbling (with 6 months; Lallstadium)
- gestures (with 8-12 months)
- first words spoken(with 10-15, mean 13 months)
understands about 50 word
6. vocabulary spurt starts (with 13-25, mean 18 months; Benennungsexplosion)
– speaks about 50 words (50-Wort-Marke) – rapid growth of active vocabulary [3.30] 7. two-word utterances (with 18-24 months) [3.31-32] 8. telegraphic speech (short precise word sequences without articles, auxiliary verbs, and other connectives)5. Language development
5.2 Biological and enviromental influences
biological basis of language acquisition (universal sequence)
- language-acquisition device (LAD; Chomsky, 1957)
- language abilities of other primates
5. Language development
5.2 Biological and enviromental influences
- sensitive period
- language as tool
- sensitive period (cf. „wild children“; „Wolfskinder“)
- • language as tool
5. Language development
5.2 Biological and enviromental influences
- influence of parents’ support, e.g. child-directed speech
- recasting (The dog was barking. When was the dog barking?)
- expanding (Dog bark. Yes, the dog was barking.)
- labeling (asking to name objects)
1. Physical changes 1.1 Body growth
- increasing height and weight
increasing height and weight
1. Physical changes 1.1 Body growth
- the brain
- prefrontal cortex (planning, organizing, maintaining attention)
- synaptogenesis and myelination
- lateralisation
1. Physical changes
1.2 Motor development
- gross motor skills (enjoyment of moving around)
- fine motor skills (e.g., building block towers) handedness (Händigkeit; right : left = 9 :1)
- genetic inheritance, in all cultures
– related to other cognitive skills1. Physical changes
1.3 Nutrition
- body mass index norms
> 85th percentile = risk for overweight > 95th percentile = overweight > 97th percentile = obese (fettleibig)
1. Physical changes
1.3 Nutrition
- overweight
- increasing number in the US
- related to other health problems (like type-2 diabetes)
- releated to psychological problems (like lower self-esteem; Selbstwert)
