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2. Personality and society (late adulthood) 2.1 Personality and mortality (Sterblichkeit)
- depression and suicide
- mood disorder (feeling deeply unhappy, demoralized, self-derogatory [selbstabwertend], and unmotivated)
- ca. 10-15% of older adults suffer from depression, up to 30% in nursing homes
- increasing suicide rates (esp. for men) in old age
- medication/psychotherapy lead to improvements in ca. 80% of cases
3. Families and social relationships (late adulthood) 3.1 Lifestyle diversity
- married people are happier, less distressed, live longer (than singles)
- older married adults are happier with marriage than younger adults
- divorces in old age linked to more financial, physical, and social consequences
- increasing number of cohabiting older adults
- children’s support more from daughters than from sons
3. Families and social relationships (late adulthood)
3.2 Friends and networks
- importance of close friendships
- friendships more important than family relations to predict mental health
- friends provide emotionaly intimacy, companionship, and community integration
- older adults with close friends live longer (larger effect for women than men)
3. Families and social relationships (late adulthood)
3.2 Friends and networks
- importance of social support and social integration
- better physical and mental health, lower institutionalization rate and mortality
- loneliness and social isolation as risk factors (cf. „men as social animal“)
3. Families and social relationships (late adulthood)
3.2 Friends and networks
- importance of altruism and volunteerism for older adults
- linked to mental and physical health, life satisfaction, mortality
5. Successful aging
- important factors
- emphasis (Betonung) on the positive aspects of aging
1. Defining death and life/death issues
- classical definition of death:
- no breathing,
- no blood pressure,
- rigidity of the body
1. Defining death and life/death issues
- brain death
brain death = no electrical activity in brain for a specified period
- lower brain regions die later (thus heartbeat and respiration still possible)
1. Defining death and life/death issues
- decisions about death
- signing of living will (Patientenverfügung)
- legal questions of when to stop life-sustaining procedures (lebenserhaltende Maßnahmen)
- medical diagnosis of „terminally ill“
1. Defining death and life/death issues
- euthanasia (Sterbehilfe)
- passive (withholding available treatment)
- active (deliberate introduction of death, e.g. by delivering drugs)
1. Defining death and life/death issues
- need for better care for dying persons
- hospice and palliative care (Hospiz, Palliativpflege)
2. Death and sociohistorical contexts
- historically changed features
- relatively fewer deaths of children and younger parents, and less often at home
- most die in older age and at institutions (hospitals, nursing homes, hospice etc.)
2. Death and sociohistorical contexts
- large culture variations
- specific beliefs about death (e.g., life after death, reincarnation)
- specific rituals associated with death
- Western cultures mostly death avoiders and deniers (Vermeider und Leugner)
3. Facing one’s own death
- Kübler-Ross’ (1969) stages of dying
1. denial and isolation („No, it can’t be.“) 2. anger („Why me?“) 3. bargaining („What can I do?“) 4. depression („Let me alone.“)
- necessary stage to disconnect oneself from loved ones
- need to contemplate abouth one’s death (and life)
5. acceptance („Let it be.“)
- finding a sense of peace (end of the dying struggle)
3. Facing one’s own death
- general
evaluation: no empirical evidence available (Kastenbaum, 2007)
- with age decreasing fear of death
- perceived control as coping strategy (and prolonging life)
- denial can be both adaptive and maladaptive
4. Coping with the death of someone else 4.1 Communicating with a dying person
- consequences of open awareness of dying for oneself and others
- chance to close life according to own ideas
- chance to complete plans and projects (open matters)
- make decisions about funeral and burying
- chance for life review, alone and with others
- better understanding of dying process
- effective communication strategies
4. Coping with the death of someone else
4.2 Grieving
- grief as a complex emotional reaction to the loss of someone close
- pining or yearning (sehnsüchtig sein)
- separation anxiety (Trennungsangst)
- despair and sadness (Verzweiflung und Traurigkeit), hopelessness, apathy
4. Coping with the death of someone else
4.2 Grieving
- no clear stages, more ups-and-downs
- about 80-90% of survivors return to normal grief after about six months
4. Coping with the death of someone else
4.2 Grieving
- remaining 10-20% develop „complicated grief“
- difficulty to return to normal life
- strong depressive symptoms
- negative consequences for physical and mental health
- therapeutic interventions helpful
coping depends on type of death (sudden vs. forseeable)!
4. Coping with the death of someone else
4.2 Grieving
- Finding a new sense
- need for adjusting to personal, social, financial consequences
- importance of social support
development
- the pattern of movement or changes that starts at conception and continues through the human life.
life-span perspective (Baltes, 1987, 2003)
- development is lifelong, multidimensional, multidirectional, plastic, multidisciplinary, and contextual
- development involves growth, maintenance, and regulation
- development is co-constructed through biological, sociocultural, and individual factors
maximum lifespan vs. life expectancy (Lebenserwartung)
- Ein Mensch kann maximal 122 Jahre alt werden
- Die Lebenserwartung ist im Laufe der Jahre gestiegen, heute liegt sie in den USA bei 78 Jahren.
context
= historical, economic, social, and cultural factors
- normative age-graded influences
- normative history-graded influences
- non-normative life events
Some contemporary (zeitgenössiche) concerns
• health and well-being (Gesundheit) • parenting and education (Elternschaft und Erziehung) • sociocultural contexts and diversity • social policy (Sozialpolitik)
The nature of development
2.1 Biological, cognitive, and socioemotional processes
• biological (e.g., brain growth, motor skills, puberty) • cognitive (e.g., language, intelligence, problem solving) • socioemotional (e.g., social relations, emotions, personality)
The nature of development
2.2 Periods of development
developmental period
= time frame that is characterized by a certain feature
The nature of development
2.2 Periods of development
typically used age ranges
1. prenatal period (conception [Empfängnis] to birth, 9 months) 2. infancy (birth to 18-24 months; Babys, Kleinkinder) 3. early childhood (2 to 5-6 years; Vorschulkinder) 4. middle and late childhood (6 to 11 years; Schulkinder) 5. adolescence (10-12 to 18-22 years; Jugendliche) 6. early adulthood (ca. 20 to 40 years) 7. middle adulthood (ca. 40 to 60 years)
The nature of development
2.2 Periods of development
conceptions of age
- chronological vs. biological (health), psychological (adaptive capacities) and social age
The nature of development
2.3 Developmental Issues
• nature-nurture debate (Natur-Umwelt-Debatte)
• nature-nurture debate (Natur-Umwelt-Debatte) – importance of mutual (wechselseitige) dependencies
The nature of development
2.3 Developmental Issues
stability and change
- possibly shifting in the course of the lifespan
The nature of development
2.3 Developmental Issues
continuity and discontinuity
- gradual changes vs. stepwise development
3. Theories of development
3.1 Psychoanalytic theories
A. Sigmund Freud’s (1856-1939) theory
main assumptions:
- origin of problems in early experiences
- primary role of sexuality
- importance of unconscious processes [1.13]
- types of conflict resolution
+ 5 psychosexual stages of development
Theories of Development
1) Psychoanalytic Theories
- Freud
- Erik Eriksons psychosocial theory
2) Cognitive Theories
- Jean Piagets cognitive developmental theory
- Vygotskis sociocultural cognitive theory
- the information processing theory
3) Behavioral and social cognitive theories
- Burrhus Skinner’s (1904-1990) operant conditioning (behaviorism)
- Albert Bandura’s (1925- ) social cognitive theory
4) Ethological theories
- Konrad Lorenz (1903-1989)
- John Bowlby (1907-1990)
- Evolutionary psychology
5) Ecological theory
- Urie Bronfenbrenner (1917-2005)
3. Theories of development
3.1 Psychoanalytic theories
Erik Erikson’s (1902-1994) psychosocial theory
- lifespan perspective of development
- 8 stages with unique developmental tasks (crisis) to be solved
3. Theories of development
3.1 Psychoanalytic theories
A. Sigmund Freud’s (1856-1939) theory
- 5 psychosexual stages of development
- Orale Phase
- Anale Phase
- Ödipale Phase
- Latenzphase
- Genitale Phase
Cognitive theories
- Jean Piaget’s (1896-1980) cognitive developmental theory
- role of cognitive schemata to understand the world
- assimilation and accomodation
- 4 qualitative stages of children’s cognitive development
Cognitive theories 2.Lev Vygotski’s (1896-1934) sociocultural cognitive theory
- impact of social interactions and culture
- learning to use inventions of a society (like language, mathematics etc.)
- gradual cognitive development
Cognitive Therories
3. The information-processing theory
- gradually increasing capacity for imformation processing
Behavioral and social cognitive theories
- Burrhus Skinner’s (1904-1990) operant conditioning (behaviorism)
- role of rewards and punishments to shape behavior
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Flashcards
Genetic foundations of development
Chromosome- and gene-linked abnormalities
gene-linked abnormalities
- phenylketonuria (eine Stoffwechselstörung); can be treated through diet (!)
- sickle-cell anemia (Sichelzellen-Anämie, Erkrankung der roten Blutzellen)
3. Heredity and environment interaction:
The nature-nurture debate
3.1 Behavior genetics (Verhaltensgenetik)
- twin studies (identical vs. fraternal twins; eineiige vs. zweieiige Zwillinge)
- problem of possibly not identical environments
3. Heredity and environment interaction:
The nature-nurture debate
3.1 Behavior genetics (Verhaltensgenetik)
- adoption studies
- correlation of adoptee with biological vs. adoption parents
- correlation of adoptee with biological vs. adoptive siblings
3. Heredity and environment interaction:
The nature-nurture debate
3.1 Behavior genetics (Verhaltensgenetik)
- meaning and computation of heredity index
meaning and computation of heredity index
3. Heredity and environment interaction:
The nature-nurture debate
3.1 Behavior genetics (Verhaltensgenetik)
- changing heredity index through the life-span
?
3. Heredity and environment interaction:
The nature-nurture debate
3.2 Heredity-environment correlations and the epigenetic view
- types of correlations (Genom-Umwelt-Passung)
1. passive genotype-environment correlation 2. evocative genotype-environment correlation 3. active (niche-picking) genotype-environment correlation
3. Heredity and environment interaction:
The nature-nurture debate
3.2 Heredity-environment correlations and the epigenetic view
- epigenetic view (bidirectional interaction between heredity and environment)
epigenetic view (bidirectional interaction between heredity and environment)
- influences of toxins, nutrition, stress, learning on genetic activity
3. Heredity and environment interaction:
The nature-nurture debate
3.2 Heredity-environment correlations and the epigenetic view
Experiment: Schlangenangst bei Rhesusaffen (Cook & Mineka, 1989) Stichprobe: Im Zoo aufgewachsene Rhesusaffen
Manipulationen: (1) Material:
- Spielzeugschlange, -krokodil, -hase und Plastikblume
- Video mit ängstlicher vs. nicht-ängstl. Reaktion eines Artgenossen
- keine Veränderung, wenn Modell nicht-ängstlich reagierte oder wenn Modell ängstlich auf Hase oder Blume reagierte;
- starke Angstreaktion, wenn Modell ängstlich auf Schlange oder Krokodil reagierte
Interpretation: Selektive Prädisposition zum Erlernen von Angst
4. Prenatal development 4.1 The course of prenatal development
- gestational age (time from conception; Gestationsalter)
- germinal period (first 2 weeks after conception; Keimperiode)
- embryonic period (2-8 weeks; Embryo)
- fetal period (from 9 weeks to birth after 40 weeks; Fötus)
4. Prenatal development 4.1 The course of prenatal development
- gestational age (time from conception; Gestationsalter
- germinal period (first 2 weeks after conception; Keimperiode)
- attachment to uterine wall (Einnistung in die Gebärmutter)
4. Prenatal development 4.1 The course of prenatal development
- gestational age (time from conception; Gestationsalter
2. embryonic period (2-8 weeks; Embryo)
development of 3 cell layers:
a. endoderm (digestive and respiratory system) b. mesoderm (circulatory system, bones, muscles, excretory system,reproductive system) c. ectoderm (nervous system, sensory organs, skin)life-support systems:
a. amnion (Fruchtblase) b. umbilical cord (Nabelschnur) to placenta c. placenta (Mutterkuchen), placental barrier system
4. Prenatal development 4.1 The course of prenatal development
- gestational age (time from conception; Gestationsalter
3. Fetal Period (rom 9 weeks to birth after 40 weeks; Fötus)
- viable (lebensfähig) after 7 months
Prenatal development
4.4 Hazards (Risikofaktoren) to prenatal development
- search after teratogens (Teratogene; Fehlbildung verursachende Stoffe)
- prescription drugs (e.g., antibiotics, antidepressants, hormones)
- psychoactive drugs (e.g., caffeine, alcohol, nicotine, cocaine, methamphetamine,marijuana, heroin)
- incompatibility of parents’ blood types (rhesus factor positive vs. negative)
- maternal diseases (e.g. rubella [German measles], syphilis, genital herpes, HIV-infection)
- maternal diet and nutrition (e.g., mercury in fish)
- emotional states and stress (e.g., level of corticotrophin-releasing hormone)
- maternal age (best: 16-34 years; older: increasing risk of Down syndrome)
- paternal factors (e.g., sperm abnormalities due to toxic exposure, smoking, age)
- environmental hazards (e.g., radioactive or X-ray radiation, chemical pollutants)
Prenatal Development
4.7 Geschlechtsdifferenzierung des Fötus
- chromosomale Festlegung durch väterliches Spermium (X = weiblich, Y = männlich)
- weibliche Entwicklung als „Basismodell“
- Maskulinisierung durch zusätzliches Testosteron (besonders im 3.-6. Monat)
5. Birth and the postpartum period 5.1 The birth process
- birth (labor) stages
1. stage (12-24 hours for first births; otherwise mean of 8 hours)
2. stage (1.5 hours for first births; otherwise mean of 45 min)
3. stage (afterbirth [Nachgeburt]; few minutes)
5. Birth and the postpartum period 5.1 The birth process
- birth (labor) stages
1. stage (12-24 hours for first births; otherwise mean of 8 hours)
- uterine contractions (Wehen; every 15-20 minutes)
- opening of the cervix (Muttermund)
- increase in frequency and intensity of contractions (every 2-5 minutes)
5. Birth and the postpartum period 5.1 The birth process
- birth (labor) stages
2. stage (1.5 hours for first births; otherwise mean of 45 min)
– move of baby’s head from uterus to birth canal – more frequent contractions (every minute) – baby completely emerges from birth canal
5. Birth and the postpartum period 5.1 The birth process
- birth (labor) stages
3. stage (afterbirth [Nachgeburt]; few minutes)
– placenta, umbilical cord and other membranes expelled
5. Birth and the postpartum period 5.1 The birth process
- childbirth settings
– hospital births (99% in USA) – home births (35% in the Netherlands) – help of obstetricians (Geburtshelfer in Klinik), midwifes (Hebammen) or doulas(„Begleiter“) – attendance of fathers (culturally diverse)
5. Birth and the postpartum period 5.1 The birth process
- methods of childbirth
– medication (analgesia, anesthesia, oxytocics) – natural and prepared childbirth – cesarean section (Kaiserschnitt) about 29% of all births in USA, different benefits and risks
5. Birth and the postpartum period
5.2 The Transition from fetus to newborn
Apgar scale test
- Apgar Scale tests on health indicators 1 and 5 minutes after delivery
5. Birth and the postpartum period
5.2 The Transition from fetus to newborn
- normal birth weight and size
- normal birth weight (3.5 kg) and size (50-53 cm)
5. Birth and the postpartum period
5.2 The Transition from fetus to newborn
- major problems
- low birth weight; about 8% of all births in USA, 4% in the Netherlands
- preterm infant (Frühgeburt), delivery 3 or more weeks too early; 12.5% of all births in USA
5. Birth and the postpartum period
5.2 The Transition from fetus to newborn
- kangaroo care
- kangaroo care and massaging helpful for preterm infants
5. Birth and the postpartum period
5.3 Bonding
- bonding = formation of an emotional connection between parents and newborn
- consequences for newborn are empirically disputed
5. Birth and the Postpartum period
5.4 the postpartum period
= postpartum period (first 6 weeks after birth)
- time of physical and emotional/psychological adjustment for the mother
- emotional fluctuations up to postpartum depression (ca. 10%; Wochenbettdepression)
- parents’ adjustment as a family (not a pair anymore), father’s jealousy
1. Emotional and personality development
1.1 Emotional development
- biological foundation
- facial expression of emotions
- basic emotions (like happiness, surprise, anger, fear) culturally universal
1. Emotional and personality development
1.1 Emotional development
- cultural differences in display rules
cultural differences in display rules?
1. Emotional and personality development
1.1 Emotional development
- development
- first emotions: disgust, interest, joy, anger, sadness, fear, and surprise
- later (self-conscious) emotions (6-24 months): jealousy, empathy, embarrassment, pride, shame, and guilt
1. Emotional and personality development
1.1 Emotional development
- emotional expression as social interaction
- importance of reciprocal (synchronous) interaction
- stranger anxiety (Fremdeln; from 6-12 months, peak with 9 months; individual differences and context effects)
- separation protest (peaks with 13-15 months)
- social referencing (13-24 months)
- emotional regulation and coping (= ability
1. Emotional and personality development
1.2 Temperament
- different categorizations (like easy, difficult, and slow-to-warm-up child)
- inherited basis
- effects of gender and culture
- goodness of fit (between child’s temperament and environmental demands)
1. Emotional and personality development
1.1 Emotional development
- emotional expression as social interaction
- emotional regulation and coping
- (= ability to inhibit or minimize the intensity and duration of emotional reactions)
1. Emotional and personality development
1.3 Personality development
- Erikson's stages 1 and 2
- trust (Urvertrauen vs. Urmisstrauen)
- independence (Autonomie vs. Scham/Zweifel)
1. Emotional and personality development
1.3 Personality development
- sense of self
- self-recognition in mirror (18-24 months)
2. Attachment
2.1 What is attachment?
- Freud: child gets attached to source of oral satisfaction
- experiment by Harlow (1958) with newborn monkeys and surrogate mothers
- results: contact comfort more important than feeding
2. Attachment
2.1 What is attachment?
- Bowlby’s attachment theory (1969, 1989)
- biological basis to keep caregiver nearby (increases survival rate)
- internal working model of the caregiver
2. Attachment
2.2 Individual differences in attachment
- strange - situation - test (Ainsworth, Fremde- Situations- Test)
- strange - situation - test (Ainsworth, Fremde- Situations- Test)
2. Attachment
2.2 Individual differences in attachment
- types of attachment
- securely attached (sicher)
- insecure-avoidant (unsicher-vermeidend)
- insecure-resistant (unsicher-ablehnend, -ambivalent)
- insecure-disorganized (unsicher-desorganisiert) [später ergänzt]
2. Attachment
2.2 Individual differences in attachment
- early attachment styles & evaluation
- early attachment styles may foreshadow later functioning
- evaluation
3. Social contexts 3.1 The family
- transition to parenthood
- reciprocal (bidirectional) socialization
- transition to parenthood (Elternschaft)
- reciprocal (bidirectional) socialization
- differences in maternal and paternal caregiving
