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2. Personality and society (late adulthood) 2.1 Personality and mortality (Sterblichkeit)
- depression and suicide
- mood disorder (feeling deeply unhappy, demoralized, self-derogatory [selbstabwertend], and unmotivated)
- ca. 10-15% of older adults suffer from depression, up to 30% in nursing homes
- increasing suicide rates (esp. for men) in old age
- medication/psychotherapy lead to improvements in ca. 80% of cases
3. Families and social relationships (late adulthood) 3.1 Lifestyle diversity
- married people are happier, less distressed, live longer (than singles)
- older married adults are happier with marriage than younger adults
- divorces in old age linked to more financial, physical, and social consequences
- increasing number of cohabiting older adults
- children’s support more from daughters than from sons
3. Families and social relationships (late adulthood)
3.2 Friends and networks
- importance of close friendships
- friendships more important than family relations to predict mental health
- friends provide emotionaly intimacy, companionship, and community integration
- older adults with close friends live longer (larger effect for women than men)
3. Families and social relationships (late adulthood)
3.2 Friends and networks
- importance of social support and social integration
- better physical and mental health, lower institutionalization rate and mortality
- loneliness and social isolation as risk factors (cf. „men as social animal“)
3. Families and social relationships (late adulthood)
3.2 Friends and networks
- importance of altruism and volunteerism for older adults
- linked to mental and physical health, life satisfaction, mortality
5. Successful aging
- important factors
- emphasis (Betonung) on the positive aspects of aging
1. Defining death and life/death issues
- classical definition of death:
- no breathing,
- no blood pressure,
- rigidity of the body
1. Defining death and life/death issues
- brain death
brain death = no electrical activity in brain for a specified period
- lower brain regions die later (thus heartbeat and respiration still possible)
1. Defining death and life/death issues
- decisions about death
- signing of living will (Patientenverfügung)
- legal questions of when to stop life-sustaining procedures (lebenserhaltende Maßnahmen)
- medical diagnosis of „terminally ill“
1. Defining death and life/death issues
- euthanasia (Sterbehilfe)
- passive (withholding available treatment)
- active (deliberate introduction of death, e.g. by delivering drugs)
1. Defining death and life/death issues
- need for better care for dying persons
- hospice and palliative care (Hospiz, Palliativpflege)
2. Death and sociohistorical contexts
- historically changed features
- relatively fewer deaths of children and younger parents, and less often at home
- most die in older age and at institutions (hospitals, nursing homes, hospice etc.)
2. Death and sociohistorical contexts
- large culture variations
- specific beliefs about death (e.g., life after death, reincarnation)
- specific rituals associated with death
- Western cultures mostly death avoiders and deniers (Vermeider und Leugner)
3. Facing one’s own death
- Kübler-Ross’ (1969) stages of dying
1. denial and isolation („No, it can’t be.“) 2. anger („Why me?“) 3. bargaining („What can I do?“) 4. depression („Let me alone.“)
- necessary stage to disconnect oneself from loved ones
- need to contemplate abouth one’s death (and life)
5. acceptance („Let it be.“)
- finding a sense of peace (end of the dying struggle)
3. Facing one’s own death
- general
evaluation: no empirical evidence available (Kastenbaum, 2007)
- with age decreasing fear of death
- perceived control as coping strategy (and prolonging life)
- denial can be both adaptive and maladaptive
4. Coping with the death of someone else 4.1 Communicating with a dying person
- consequences of open awareness of dying for oneself and others
- chance to close life according to own ideas
- chance to complete plans and projects (open matters)
- make decisions about funeral and burying
- chance for life review, alone and with others
- better understanding of dying process
- effective communication strategies
4. Coping with the death of someone else
4.2 Grieving
- grief as a complex emotional reaction to the loss of someone close
- pining or yearning (sehnsüchtig sein)
- separation anxiety (Trennungsangst)
- despair and sadness (Verzweiflung und Traurigkeit), hopelessness, apathy
4. Coping with the death of someone else
4.2 Grieving
- no clear stages, more ups-and-downs
- about 80-90% of survivors return to normal grief after about six months
4. Coping with the death of someone else
4.2 Grieving
- remaining 10-20% develop „complicated grief“
- difficulty to return to normal life
- strong depressive symptoms
- negative consequences for physical and mental health
- therapeutic interventions helpful
coping depends on type of death (sudden vs. forseeable)!
4. Coping with the death of someone else
4.2 Grieving
- Finding a new sense
- need for adjusting to personal, social, financial consequences
- importance of social support
development
- the pattern of movement or changes that starts at conception and continues through the human life.
life-span perspective (Baltes, 1987, 2003)
- development is lifelong, multidimensional, multidirectional, plastic, multidisciplinary, and contextual
- development involves growth, maintenance, and regulation
- development is co-constructed through biological, sociocultural, and individual factors
maximum lifespan vs. life expectancy (Lebenserwartung)
- Ein Mensch kann maximal 122 Jahre alt werden
- Die Lebenserwartung ist im Laufe der Jahre gestiegen, heute liegt sie in den USA bei 78 Jahren.
context
= historical, economic, social, and cultural factors
- normative age-graded influences
- normative history-graded influences
- non-normative life events
Some contemporary (zeitgenössiche) concerns
• health and well-being (Gesundheit) • parenting and education (Elternschaft und Erziehung) • sociocultural contexts and diversity • social policy (Sozialpolitik)
The nature of development
2.1 Biological, cognitive, and socioemotional processes
• biological (e.g., brain growth, motor skills, puberty) • cognitive (e.g., language, intelligence, problem solving) • socioemotional (e.g., social relations, emotions, personality)
The nature of development
2.2 Periods of development
developmental period
= time frame that is characterized by a certain feature
The nature of development
2.2 Periods of development
typically used age ranges
1. prenatal period (conception [Empfängnis] to birth, 9 months) 2. infancy (birth to 18-24 months; Babys, Kleinkinder) 3. early childhood (2 to 5-6 years; Vorschulkinder) 4. middle and late childhood (6 to 11 years; Schulkinder) 5. adolescence (10-12 to 18-22 years; Jugendliche) 6. early adulthood (ca. 20 to 40 years) 7. middle adulthood (ca. 40 to 60 years)
The nature of development
2.2 Periods of development
conceptions of age
- chronological vs. biological (health), psychological (adaptive capacities) and social age
The nature of development
2.3 Developmental Issues
• nature-nurture debate (Natur-Umwelt-Debatte)
• nature-nurture debate (Natur-Umwelt-Debatte) – importance of mutual (wechselseitige) dependencies
The nature of development
2.3 Developmental Issues
stability and change
- possibly shifting in the course of the lifespan
The nature of development
2.3 Developmental Issues
continuity and discontinuity
- gradual changes vs. stepwise development
3. Theories of development
3.1 Psychoanalytic theories
A. Sigmund Freud’s (1856-1939) theory
main assumptions:
- origin of problems in early experiences
- primary role of sexuality
- importance of unconscious processes [1.13]
- types of conflict resolution
+ 5 psychosexual stages of development
Theories of Development
1) Psychoanalytic Theories
- Freud
- Erik Eriksons psychosocial theory
2) Cognitive Theories
- Jean Piagets cognitive developmental theory
- Vygotskis sociocultural cognitive theory
- the information processing theory
3) Behavioral and social cognitive theories
- Burrhus Skinner’s (1904-1990) operant conditioning (behaviorism)
- Albert Bandura’s (1925- ) social cognitive theory
4) Ethological theories
- Konrad Lorenz (1903-1989)
- John Bowlby (1907-1990)
- Evolutionary psychology
5) Ecological theory
- Urie Bronfenbrenner (1917-2005)
3. Theories of development
3.1 Psychoanalytic theories
Erik Erikson’s (1902-1994) psychosocial theory
- lifespan perspective of development
- 8 stages with unique developmental tasks (crisis) to be solved
3. Theories of development
3.1 Psychoanalytic theories
A. Sigmund Freud’s (1856-1939) theory
- 5 psychosexual stages of development
- Orale Phase
- Anale Phase
- Ödipale Phase
- Latenzphase
- Genitale Phase
Cognitive theories
- Jean Piaget’s (1896-1980) cognitive developmental theory
- role of cognitive schemata to understand the world
- assimilation and accomodation
- 4 qualitative stages of children’s cognitive development
Cognitive theories 2.Lev Vygotski’s (1896-1934) sociocultural cognitive theory
- impact of social interactions and culture
- learning to use inventions of a society (like language, mathematics etc.)
- gradual cognitive development
Cognitive Therories
3. The information-processing theory
- gradually increasing capacity for imformation processing
Behavioral and social cognitive theories
- Burrhus Skinner’s (1904-1990) operant conditioning (behaviorism)
- role of rewards and punishments to shape behavior
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Flashcards
2. Physical changes 2.1 Puberty
- hormonal changes
- endocrine system (hypothalamus, pituitary gland [Hypophyse/Hirnanhangdrüse],gonads [Gonaden/Keimdrüsen = Hoden + Eierstock])
- increase of testosterone in boys and estradiol (Östradiol) in girls
- complex hormone-behavior link
2. Physical changes 2.1 Puberty
- pubertal growth spurt
– changing shoulder/hip ratio
2. Physical changes 2.1 Puberty
- timing and variation in puberty
– early vs. late maturation – boys: 10-13 years; girls: 9-15 years – historically increasingly earlier onset of puberty
2. Physical changes 2.1 Puberty
- timing and variation in puberty
– early vs. late maturation – boys: 10-13 years; girls: 9-15 years – historically increasingly earlier onset of puberty
2. Physical changes 2.1 Puberty body image (gender differences)
gender differences
2. Physical changes 2.2 The brain
• corpus callosum (Balken) thickens • further development of prefrontal cortex • maturation of the amygdala (Mandelkern)
2. Physical changes
2.3 Adolescent Sexuality
- development of sexual identity
– sexual orientiation – differences in sexual interest and activity
2. Physical changes
2.3 Adolescent Sexuality
- timing pattern of engaging sexual activity
a) 15-year olds who are virgins (Jungfrauen): 80% of girls, 70% of boys b) 17-year olds who had sexual intercourse (Geschlechtsverkehr): 45-72% of girls, 63-76% of boys (in different cultures)
2. Physical changes
2.3 Adolescent Sexuality
- missing coordination of sexual development and social/mental maturation
- problem of risky behavior
- missing coordination of sexual development and social/mental maturation
- problem of risky behavior (early sex, no contraceptives; keine Verhütungsmittel)
3. Issues in adolescent health
3.1 Nutrition and exercise
- increase in percentage of overweight adolescents (in US and Europe)
- increasing consumption of junk food (and less fruits and vegetables)
- decrease in frequency of physical exercise (Sport)
- • inadequate amount of sleep on school nights
3. Issues in adolescent health
3.2 Leading causes of death
accidents, homicide (Mord), suicide (Selbstmord)
[s. Chapter 10]
3. Issues in adolescent health
3.3 Substance use and abuse
- large proportion of adolescents using illicit drugs (illegale Drogen)
- risk for developing dependencies (e.g. after early alcohol abuse)
3. Issues in adolescent health
3.4 Eating disorders
- Anorexia nervosa
criteria:
- weight more than 85% under norm (DSM-IV) or BMI < 17.5 (ICD-10);
- intense fear of gaining weight; distorted body image
- less than 1% of adolescents involved (girls : boys = 10 : 1); 15% of these die
- starts in early adolescence
- influence of thin media stereotypes (like fashion models)
3. Issues in adolescent health
3.4 Eating disorders
- Bulimia nervosa
- repeated cycles of binge-and-purge (Heißhungerattacken-und-Erbrechen)
- about 1-2 % of women involved
- (girls : boys = 9 : 1)
- starts in late adolescence/early adulthood
- victims usually of normal weight
4. Adolescent cognition
4.1 Piaget’s formal operational stage
- fourth (and last) stage in Piaget’s theory (from about 11-12 years on)
4. Adolescent cognition
- evaluation of Piaget´s theory
– much more individual variation than assumed – ideal model (not all adults reach stage 4) – education can foster development – no strict stages, performance depends on tasks used
4. Adolescent cognition
4.2 Adolescent egocentricm
- heightened self-consciousness (Selbstbewusstsein) of adolescents
4. Adolescent cognition
4.3 Information Processing
- improvement in executive functioning
- time of increased decision making (but not always competent)
- development of critical thinking
1. Identity • parts of identity:
Vocational identity (berufsbezogen), political identity, religious identity, relationship and sexual identity, achievement identity, cultural identity, physical/body identity, interests, personality
1. Identity
- Erikson´s stage 5
- identity vs. identity confusion (Identität vs. Rollendiffusion)
- psychosocial moratorium (search for one’s identity)
1. Identity
- developmental changes
a. identity foreclosure (übernommene Identität) b. identity diffusion (Identitätsdiffusion) c. identity moratorium (Moratorium) d. identity achievement (erarbeitete Identität)
1. Identity
- transitional period of emerging adulthood
- family influences
- transitional period of emerging adulthood (Heranwachsende; 18-25 years old)
- family influences
- individuality (self-assertion and separateness; Selbstbehauptung und Abgrenzung)
- connectedness (mutuality and permeability; Gegenseitigkeit und Durchlässigkeit)
3. Peers
- friendships, functions
- functions (social needs): tenderness, companionship, social acceptance, intimacy, sexual relations
- development of close friends
3. Peers
- peer groups
- increasing pressure through peer standards
- forming of same-sex cliques (with 2-12, M = 5-6 persons)
- mutual interests
- jointly spent time
3. Peers
- dating and romantic relationships
- functions: recreation, status bulding, social learning, mate finding
- special problems of gay and lesbian youth
- influences of sociocultural contexts on dating
3. Peers
- empirical findings
- about 50% of 10th graders and about 75% of 12th graders had at least one romantic relationship (> 2 months)
- about 35% of 15-16 year olds and about 60% of 17-18 year olds had a dating relationship of more than 11 months
4. Culture and adolescent development 4.1 Cross-cultural comparisons
- some facts:
- 2/3 of Asian Indian adolescents accept their parents’ choice of a marital partner for them
- in the Middle East, many adolescents are not allowed to interact with the other sex, even in school
- street youth around the world engage in delinquency and prostitution for their economic needs
- youth in Russia are marrying much earlier than in the U.S. to legitimize sexual activity
- extensive increases in HIV infections in sub-Saharan youth
4. Culture and adolescent development 4.1 Cross-cultural comparisons
- roles of amily,culture etc.
- profound gender differences in different cultures
- different roles of families of origin (Herkunftsfamilie)
- different roles of peer groups
- rites of passage (from youth to adulthood)
4. Culture and adolescent development
- Ethnicity
- immigration type (Akkulturation)
- confound of ethnicity and socioeconomic status
5. Adolescent problems
- most frequent problems
(1) drug abuse (Drogenmissbrauch) (2) juvenile delinquency (Jugendkriminalität) (3) sexual problems (4) school-related problems (5) adolescent pregnancy and sexually transmitted infections (6) depression (7) suicide (Selbstmord)
5. Adolescent problems
5.1 Juvenile Delinquency
- • about 2% in U.S. (FBI statistics; males : females = 3 : 1)
- • personality differences
5. Adolescent problems
5.1 Juvenile Delinquency
- causes of delinquency, negative identity
causes: – norms of lower-SES peeer groups – failing family support and monitoring – model learning – poverty (Armut), unemployment (Arbeitslosigkeit), alienation (Entfremdung) [10.16] – heredity
- negative identity (Erikson)
5. Adolescent problems
5.2 Depression and suicide
- rate of depression
- facts of depression
- increasing rate of depression (females > males)
possible factors for depression:
– transition into puberty and adulthood – family problems – missing peer support
5. Adolescent problems
5.2 Depression and suicide
- facts about suicide
- earlier bad experiences (e.g., physical or sexual abuse)
- missing support and emotional attachment
- pressure for achievement
- stressful circumstances (e..g, poor grades or breakup of a relationship)
5. Adolescent problems
5.3 Intervention/ prevention programs
- intensive individual attention (e.g., individual counselor)
- community-wide multiagency collaborative approaches (e.g., health campaign)
- early identification and intervention (e.g., preschool programs)
1. The transition from adolescence to adulthood
- becoming an adult
- key features (Arnett, 2006)
becoming an adult = emerging adulthood (18-25 years of age; Heranwachsende) key features (Arnett, 2006): 1. identity exploration (esp. in love and work) 2. instability 3. self-focused (little social obligations) 4. feeling in-between 5. age of possibilities
1. The transition from adolescence to adulthood
- markers of becoming an adult
– full-time job after end of school/college – economic independence (ca. 50% at age 25) – taking responsibility for oneself
2. Physical development 2.1 Physical performance and development
- peak of physical performance between 19 and 26 years of age
- decline in physical performance starts at 30 (e.g. sagging chins and protruding abdomens; hängende Wangen und Bauchansatz)
- sensory systems show first decrements at end of early adulthood
2. Physical development
2.2 Health
- twice the mortality rate of adolescents
- bad health habits from adolescence increase in early adulthood
- generally poor health lifestyle (diet, drugs, physical exercise, sleep, etc.)
- high rate of obesity (about 25% of young adults in U.S.)
2. Physical development
2.2 Health
- need for aerobic exercises (30 min/day)
– positive effects on physical and mental health – accomplished by only 1/5 of young adults
