Business communication 3

• Monochronic vs. polychronic by Hall
• sequential vs. synchronic by tromenaars/H.T
• linear vs. flexible by Meyer
• Long-term vs. short-term Hofstede

• Low-context vs. high context by Hall/Meyer
• Individualism vs. collectivsm Hofstede T. /H.T.
• Masculinity vs. femininity by Hofstede
• Achievement vs. ascription by Trompenaars/H.T.
• Task-based vs relationship-based by Meyer

• uncertainty avoidance (high vs. low) by Hofstede
• Indulgence vs. restraint by Hofstede
• Neutral vs. emotional by Tromenaars/H.T.
• Confrontational vs. confrontation avoidance by Meyer
• Direct vs. indirect feedback by Meyer

• power distance (high vs. low) by Hofstede
• Egalitarianism vs. hierarchical by Meyer
• Consensual vs. top-down Meyer

• universalism vs. particularism by Trompenaars/H.T.
• specific vs. diffuse by Tromenaars/H.T.
• internal vs. external control by Tromenaars/H.T.
• principles-first vs. applications-first by Meyer

 Edward T. Hall used the term polychronic to describe the preference for doing several things at once. Conversely, monochronic refers to an individual’s preference to do their activities one by one.

People in monochronic cultures such as the U.S. or Germany prefer promptness, careful planning and rigid commitment to plans. They also tend to be task-oriented whereas people from polychronic cultures are people-oriented. Cultures such as Italy or Brazil are considered to be polychronic since they prefer to have multiple things happening at once. Polychronic cultures tend to prioritise relationships over tasks and do not consider time commitments to be binding.

Developed by trompenhaars/H.T

Sequentia time: People like events to happen in order. They place a high value on punctuality, planning (and sticking to your plans), and staying on schedule. In this culture, "time is money," and people don't appreciate it when their schedule is thrown off.

- focus on one activity or project at a time. 

- be punctual

- keep deadlines

- set clear deadlines

Synchronous time: People see the past, present, and future as interwoven periods. They often work on several projects at once, and view plans and commitments as flexible.

- be flexible in how you approach work.

- allow people to be flexible on tasks and projects, where possible.

- highlight the importance of punctuality and deadlines if these are key to meeting objectives. 

typical sequential-time cultures include Germany, u.k. and U.s.

typical synchronous-time cultures include japan, Argentina, and Mexico 

Developed by Meyer. 

Linear time : Focus on schedules, future and measure time in small units. Flexible time : Emphasis on relationships, present and don't measure time. 

Long-term orientation is when you are focused on the future. You are willing to delay short-term material or social success or even short-term emotional gratification in order to prepare for the future. If you have this cultural perspective, you value persistence, perseverance, saving and being able to adapt.

Short-term orientation is when you are focused on the present or past and consider them more important than the future. If you have a short-term orientation, you value tradition, the current social hierarchy and fulfilling your social obligations. You care more about immediate gratification than long-term fulfillment.

developed by hall/meyer

People within high-context cultures tend to be more aware and observant of facial expressions, body language, changes in tone, and other aspects of communication that are not directly spoken. Denotation tends to be attributed to low-context culture. People in low-context cultures communicate in a more direct way, with explicitly speaking what they want to communicate.

developed b hofstede T. /H.t.

• Individualism indicates that there is a greater importance placed on attaining personal goals. A person’s self-image in this category is defined as “I.”
• Collectivism indicates that there is a greater importance placed on the goals and well-being of the group. A person’s self-image in this category is defined as “We”.

developed by hofstede

The Masculinity side of this dimension represents a preference in society for achievement, heroism, assertiveness, and material rewards for success. Society at large is more competitive. Its opposite, Femininity, stands for a preference for cooperation, modesty, caring for the weak and quality of life. Society at large is more consensus-oriented.

developed by trompenaars/H.T. 

Achievement vs. Ascription In an achievement culture, people are accorded status based on how well they perform their functions. In an ascription culture, status is based on who or what a person is. Does one have to prove himself to receive status or is it given to him? Achievement cultures include the US, Austria, Israel, Switzerland and the UK. Some ascription cultures are Venezuela, Indonesia, and China. When people from an achievement culture do business in an ascription culture it is important to have older, senior members with formal titles and respect should be shown to their counterparts. However, for an ascription culture doing business in an achievement culture, it is important to bring knowledgeable members who can prove to be proficient to other group, and respect should be shown for the knowledge and information of their counterparts

developed by Meyer

ask-based and Relationship-based. As you can probably guess, the task-based dimension is more about the ‘you do good work consistently, you are reliable, so I trust you’. The second dimension on the other hand is rather the approach of ‘I’ve shared my personal time with you, I like you, I know others who trust you, therefore I trust you’. As much as you can like someone who does the work well and consistently, the trust is not based on your ‘liking’ in case of a Task-based preference. It works the other way around as well – the alone fact, that you do a good work may not be enough for me to trust you if I’m from a Relationship-based culture.

Low uncertainty avoidance persons act first and then get information. They are very comfortable with ambiguity and uncertainty. ... High uncertainty avoidance often requires rigid codes of behavior and beliefs. There may easily be intolerance of unorthodox behaviors and ideas.

developed by hofstede

Indulgence stands for a society that allows relatively free gratification of basic and natural human drives related to enjoying life and having fun. Restraint stands for a society that suppresses gratification of needs and regulates it by means of strict social norms.

developed by trompenaars/H.T. 

Neutral cultures include Germany, Netherlands, and the U.K. In an affective culture, people tend to share their emotions, even in the workplace. In an affective culture, it considered normal that people share their emotions. Examples of affective cultures include Italy, Spain, and Latin America.

developed by Meyer

The Disagreeing scale of Meyer’s Culture Map again can be shown on a spectrum from Confrontational to Avoids Confrontation. On the confrontational side of the spectrum it’s encouraged to challenge ideas in a team, disagree with others as it’s perceived more as a way to effectively develop ideas and grow, disagreeing is not inappropriate and will not negatively impact relationship. In cultures which are more likely to avoid confrontation the disagreement is perceived as negative for the team or the company, it is inappropriate and will most likely cause damage to the team harmony and relationships within, will be taken more personally, ie. thinking that it’s the person and not idea that is being confronted.

developed by meyer

Direct feedback: Negative feedback is provided frankly, bluntly, and honestly without being softened by positive feedback. 
Indirect feedback: Negative feedback is provided softly, subtly, and diplomatically while given within positive feedback.

developed by hofstede

Individuals in cultures demonstrating a high power distance are very deferential to figures of authority and generally accept an unequal distribution of power, while individuals in cultures demonstrating a low power distance readily question authority and expect to participate in decisions that affect them

typically country for high to low power distance are

1. russia
2. china
3. india
4. france
5. japan
6. italy
7. us
8. canada
9. australia
10. germany
11. uk
12. switzerland
13. sweden

developed by meyer

In egalitarian societies, distance is narrow. In hierarchical societies, this large power distance means that the person at the top has much more power over his or her subordinates than a comparable status person in an egalitarian society.

developed by meyer

Consensual: Decisions are made in groups through unanimous agreement. Top-down: Decisions are made by individuals (usually the boss).

development trompenaars/H.T. 

Universalism vs. Particularism Universalism is the belief that ideas and practices can be applied everywhere without modification, while particularism is the belief that circumstances dictate how ideas and practices should be applied.

trompenaars/H.T. 

This dimension refers to how people communicate and interact with one another in their society. Specific cultures are more direct using clear descriptive words, frankness and facts. Germans are known for clear, precise, descriptive language to convey what they want.

Diffuse cultures accept, understand and prefer indirect communication that may carefully use contextual clues to convey understanding. An example of this is the earlier story of the upper class woman conveying through actions that it would not be acceptable for her daughter to marry a boy from a lower class. Japanese would also use diffuse communication especially when trying to say no in a way that allows a person to save face.

developed by tromenaars /H.T. 

In an internal direction culture, people believe that they can control their environment to achieve their goals. The focus is selfish (one's self, one's team, and one's organization). ... In an external direction culture, people believe that they must work with their environment to achieve their goals.

developed by meyer

Application-first: Individuals are trained to begin with a fact, statement, or opinion before adding concepts to back up or explain the conclusion as necessary. Principle-first: Individuals are trained to first develop the theory or complex concept before presenting a fact, statement, or opinion.

Low context  to high context

1. US
2. Australia
3. Canada
4. Netherlands
5. Germany
6. Switzerland
7. Denmark
8. UK
9. Finland
10. Poland
11. Brazil
12. Argentina
13. Spain
14. Mexico
15. Itali
16. Peru
17. France
18. Russia
19. Singapore
20. India
21. Iran
22. Saudi Arabia
23. Kenya
24. China
25. Japan
26. Korea
27. Indonesia

Low-context = good communication is precise, simple and clear. messages are expressed and understood at face value. repetition is appreciated if it helps clarify the communication. 

High-context = good communication is sophisticated, nuanced, and layered. Messages are both spoken and read between the lines. Messages are often implied but not plainly expressed. 

direct negative feedback

1. Israel
2. Netherlands
3. Russia
4. germany
5. france
6. denmark
7. norway
8. italy
9. australia
10. spain

Indirect negative feedback

1. Japan
2. thailand
3. indonesia
4. Saudia Arabia

Direct negative feedback = negative feedback to a colleague is provided frankly, bluntly, honestly. negative messages stand alone, not softened by positive ones. absolute descriptors are often used (inappropriate, completely unprofessional) when criticizing. criticism may be given to an individual in front of a group. 

Indirect negative feedback = negative feedback to a colleague is provided softly, subtly, diplomatically. positive messages are used to wrap negative ones. qualifying descriptors are often used (sort of inappropriate, slightly unprofessional) when criticizing. criticism is given only in private. 

principles first

1. italy
2. france
3. russia
4. spain

application first

1. US
2. canada
3. australia
4. uk

application-first: individuals are trained to begin with a fact, statement, or opinion and later ad concepts to back up or explain the conclusion as necessary. the preference is to begin a message or report with an executive summary or bullet points. discussions are approached in a practical, concrete manner. theoretical or philosophical discussions are avoided in a business environment.

principles-first: individuals have been trained to first develop the theory or complex concept before presenting a fact, statement, or opinion. the preference is to begin a message or report by building up a theoretical argument before moving on to a conclusion. the conceptual principles underlying each situation are valued. 

Egalitarian

1. denmark
2. netherlands
3. sweden
4. isral
5. australia

Hierarchical

1. Japan
2. Korea
3. Nigeria
4. Arabia
5. India
6. China

Egalitarian = the ideal distance between a boss and a subordinate is low. the best boss is a facilitator among equals. organizational structures are flat. communication often skips hierarchical lines.

Hierarchical: the ideal distance between a boss and a subordinate is high. the best boss Is a strong director who leads from the front. status is important. organizational structures are multilayered and fixed. communication follows set hierarchical lines. 

consensual

1. japan
2. sweden
3. netherlands
4. germany

top-down:

1. nigeria
2. china
3. india
4. russia
5. italy

consensual= decisions ar made in groups through unanimous agreement.

top-down = decisions are made by individuals (usually the boss)

task-based:

1. us
2. netherlands
3. denmark
4. australia
5. germany
6. finland

relationship-based

1. saudi arabia
2. india
3. nigeria
4. china

task-based= trust is built through business-related activities. work relationships are built and dropped easily, based on the practicality of the situation. you do good work consistently, you are reliable, I enjoy working with you, I trust you

relationship based= trust is built through sharing meals, evening drinks, and visits ar the coffee machine. work relationships build up slowly over the long term. I've seen who you are at a deep level, I've shared personal time with you, I know others well who trust you, I trust you.

confrontational

1. israel
2. france
3. germany
4. russia
5. netherlands

avoids confrontation

1. japan
2. indonesia
3. thailand
4. ghana

confrontational = disagreement and debate are positive for the team or organization. open confrontation is appropriate and will not negatively impact the relationship.

avoids confrontation= disagreement and debate are negative for the team or organization. open confrontation is inappropriate and will break group harmony or negatively impact the relationship. 

linear-time

1. switzerland
2. germany
3. japan
4. sweden
5. netherlands
6. denmakr
7. us

flexible-time

1. saudi arabia
2. nigeria
3. kenya
4. india

linear-time = project steps are approached in a sequential fashion, completing one task before beginning the next. one thing at a time. no interruptions. the focus is on the deadline and sticking to the schedule. emphasis is on promptness and good organization over flexibility.

flexible-time = project steps are approached in a fluid manner, changing tasks as opportunities arise. many things are dealt with at once and interruptions accepted. the focus is on adaptability and flexibility is valued over organization. 

- proxemics

- high context versus low context

- monochronic versus polychronic

• individualism vs collectivism
• masculinity vs feminity
• power distance (high vs low)
• uncertainty avoidance (high vs low)
• long-term vs short-term orientation
• indulgence vs self-restraint

High individualism

• US
• Netherlands
• Germany
• France

moderate individualism

• japan
• russia

low individualism /high collectivism

• india
• hong kong
• indonesia
• west africa

1. communicating (high-context vs. low context)
2. evaluating (direct vs. indirect feedback)
3. persuading (principles-first vs. applications-first)
4. leading(egalitarian vs. hierarchical -> power distance)
5. deciding(consensual vs. top-dow -> power distance)
6. trusting(task-based vs. relationship-based -> individualism vs collectivism)
7. disagreeing(confrontational vs confrontation avoidance)
8. scheduling(linear vs flexible -> monochronic vs. polychronic)