Entscheidungen im Wirtschaftskontext

Description 

- examination of the effect of three motivational orientations in relation to retirees' bridge employment participation 

- application of the social gender role theory to examine the effect of gender in moderation the effects of motivational orientations

- exploratory analysis was conducted to examine the effects of the same set of motivational orientations on postretirement volunteering activities

Results

- communion striving and generativity striving were positively related to bridge employment participation (status striving was not)

- gender moderated the effect of status striving (positively related to bridge employment participation for male retirees but not for female retirees) (no gender effect on communion striving) 

- status striving was negatively related to volunteering after retirement 

- generativity striving was positively (weak) related to volunteering after retirement

Constraints: 

- Antecedents and Outcome were measured at the same time

- Limited generalizability (east-west-disparitiy; urban-rural-gap, Chinese vs. Western samples)

- No measure why the retirees’ continued to work

1) Temporal process model (Schultz & Wang, 2011): How is the process of retirement? 

--> planning, decision making, transition & adjustment

2) Multilevel model (Szinovacz, 2013): Understanding influences and antecedents that predict retirement behavior/process 

--> Macrolevel: Cultural norms, societal values 

--> Mesolevel: Retirement policies and culture at organizational level; non-work life context 

--> Microlevel: Individual attributes, behavior, attitudes

3) resource-based dynamic model (Wang et al., 2011) 

--> ease of retirement depends on resources (physical, cognitive, financial, motivational, social, emotional) 

--> resources predict how fast turning point to positive well-being will be reached 

Mesolevel: stressful and high workload --> retiring early; pension coverage, provision of health insurance -->retiring, employees plateauing in career --> pressure to retire, care need of family  members, time retirement in relation to partner, coordinate pension decisions

Macrolevel: pension system (e.g. dutch worker less involved in planning and lower goal clarity); Weak economy and high unemployment --> earlier retirement

- structured planning/high clarity of goals 

- retiring voluntarily

- living in a country that endorses a "defined benefits plan"

- positive attitude towards retirement

- spouse that retires in a similar timeframe

- small number of dependents

- higher education 

- higher value of leisure and family time 

- C+ and N-

-  physical and cognitive activities after retirement 

- good health insurance 

Description 

- discussion of psychological conceptualization of retirement and empirical operationalizations of retirement status

- review of three psychological reviews (for understanding the retirement process and associated antecedents and outcomes,including the temporal processmodel of retirement,the multilevel model of retirement, and the resource-based dynamic model for retirement adjustment

- survey the empirical findings regarding how various individual attributes, job and organizational factors, family factors, and socioeconomic context are related to the retirement process

- discuss outcomes associated with retirement in terms of retirees’ financial well-being, physical well-being, and psychological well-being

Constraints 

- big mass of very obvious and generic results

- retirement research should dive into specifics:

•cultural differences?

•influence of socioeconomic infrastructure?

•influence of immigrant status?

•influence of availability of local care agencies on retirement behaviour?

Results 

Antecedents

Microlevel: more options in maintaining life patterns, engaging in retirement planning, retiring, C+ (+) 

Mesolevel: stressful and high workload --> retiring early; pension coverage, provision of health insurance -->retiring, employees plateauing in career --> pressure to retire, care need of family  members, time retirement in relation to partner, coordinate pension decisions

Macrolevel: pension system (e.g. dutch worker less involved in planning and lower goal clarity); Weak economy and high unemployment --> earlier retirement

Enhancement opportunities

Financial well-being: financial literacy, clarity of financial goals, preretirement planning (+); disrupted career paths, unemployment before retirement, number of dependents (-) 

Physical well-being: bridge employment & voluntary work, preretirement health status, more extensive health insurance coverage (+); job-related physical demands (-) 

Psychological well-being: working for generative reasons, bridge employment / voluntary work, leisure activities, retirement planning, voluntariness of retirement, leisure activities are cause for retirement (+); work role identity, unemployment before retirement, high work stress (psych. & phys. demands), health is cause for retirement (-)

Retirement outcomes: 

- financial, physical & psychological well-being --> significant, positive & reciprocal relation

- Intelligenz = Konstrukt, das kognitive bzw. geistige Leistungsfähigkeit von Menschen beschreibt

- das eine wird über Selbstauskunft gemessen, das andere über objektive Leistungstests

- Intelligenz (dimensional), Interesssen (kategorial)

- Konstrukte die über individuelle Differenzen Leistung vorhersagen

6. Action Theory: Career development derives meaning through the social interaction between individuals and others in their social environment ; Actions are viewed from three perspectives (Manifest behavior, conscious cognitions, social meaning); very important: goal-directed actions that individuals take in career development; Contextual information is brought into the process for example by doing the process at the workplace or by involving significant others

7. Person-Centered Theory: Introduced by Carl Rogers (1942); most important factor affecting the progress made in the counselling session is the relationship between the counsellor and the client; Attitudes and qualities of counsellor: Congruence, unconditional positive regard, empathetic understanding; Goals: client evolves a personal identity, decides the vocational goal that is fulfilment of that identity, determine a planned route to that goal, implementing the plan

8. Psychodynmaic Theories: two main assumptions of psychodynamic approaches: Individuals’ difficulties have their origins in early experiences, Individuals may not be consciously aware of their motives; Helpful concepts: defense mechanisms such as denial and repression, transference; Key activity: making intelligible interconnections among the episodes of the client’s life

1. vocational guidance: focus on the early career decision-making process, with the central proposition that individuals should engage in a process of “true reasoning” to achieve a good match between own characteristics and the demands of a job; developeb by Parson (1909), who can be held as the originator of career counselling

2. Person-Environment-Fit Theories: Emphasize diagnosis and assessment, Common outcome: recommendation to client; Career counselor’s primary activity according to theory: assessment of occupational interests and identification of occupations that match the client’s interest profile; Instruments for assessing interests: Strong Interests Inventory, Self-Directed Search; Fit is now viewed as more of an ongoing process, where individuals and work environments are in in constant reciprocal interaction

3. Developmental Theories: Career counsellors encourage their clients to move toward a greater awareness of themselves and their situations and to develop decision-making skills, Donald Super: career development proceeds through stages as the individual seeks to “implement a self-concept” in an occupation (Exploration, Establishment, Maintenance, Disengagement), Interventions need to be related to the client’s developmental stage; Key concept = career maturity: individual’s readiness for coping with the tasks of career development as compared with others handling the same task

4. Cognitive-Behavioral Theories: Emphasize a change-focused problem-solving approach and the cognitive processes through which people monitor their behaviour; Believes about themselves and work are learned (instrumental and associative); Main task for career counsellor: to assess the “accuracy, completeness and coherence” of clients’ beliefs about themselves and the external world

5. Narrative Approaches: Clients are encouraged to tell stories about their lives and help them make sense of these and identify key themes within them; The aim is to help clients understand and explain their experiences in a coherent way and retell or re-author their story of stories in a more satisfactory and agentic manner (e.g. through empathetic reflection) 

- Congruence results in satisfaction and stability --> less support

- Some writers have questioned the validity of the six-dimensional model of interests

- Little attention to the role of attributes other than interests --> career counsellors should use frameworks of fit that integrate various attributes, including abilities, interests, and personality à abilities, interests and personality develop in tandem

- Fit is now viewed as more of an ongoing process, where individuals and work environments are in in constant reciprocal interaction

1. Building the relationship -->  establish the working alliance

2. Enabling clients’ (self)-understanding  --> helping clients assess their attributes and their situation 

3. Exploring new perspectives --> challenging and information giving

4. Forming strategies and plans -->  reviewing process and goal setting 

1. Legacy metaphor: career as inheritance

2. Craft metaphor: career as construction

3. Season metaphor: career as cycle 

4. Matching metaphor: career as fit 

5. Path metaphor: career as journey 

6. Network metaphor: career as encounters and relationships 

7. theater metaphor: career as a role 

8. economic metaphor: career as a resource 

9. narrative metaphor: career as a story 

- careers limited by social class, gender, and ethnic category --> modelling the experience, and the educational and financial opportunities they receive

- inter-generational occupational mobility, particularily between different occupational and socio-economic levels is to some extent circumscribed by social structures

- career inheritance is multi-faceted: sociological (e.g. social structure), genetic (inherited IQ), and psychological (e.g. parental attitudes towards work) 

- builds on sociologist theories 

- can be used for example used in the Stage 2 (Enabling Clients' Understanding): structured interview on the question "Who and what influenced your career?" By using the career as legacy metaphor clients can get a different point of view of their career and in what way it was influenced by others and by them (related to psychodynamic theories "individuals may not be aware of their motives") Coming from there the client might be able to distinguish between own and others wishes and can develop a personal identity that can decide for a vocational goal that fulfils his identity (person-centered theory) --> other metaphor can be used --> Career as Construct 

- topics: does not exactly fit, sociological theory, limited test-subject pool, more descriptive 

- metaphern fördern verständnis, verbalisieren 

- thinking out of the box

- sprache finden 

Probleme: 

- interpretationsspielraum

- liegt in der aufgabe des beraters metapher richtig zu deuten 

- 

Apollonian = rational and analytical thinking

Dionysian = intuitive, emotional and chaotic thinking

-  After WW2: formal models of JDM like SEU (=subjective expected utility theory) --> people strive to maximize the subjective utility of their decision making consequences 

- in the 1940s and 1950s: modern version of the SEU that allowed to derive individual utility functions from the preferences and choices of individual decision makers (Neumann and Morgenstern)

- Usual interpretation of that discrepancy in the 1950s and 1960s: humans don’t have insight into their own decision policies and therefore make mistakes --> not good at implementing the optimal model but they work with statistical models

- Mid 1970s: well-specified models of JDM of how people should make decisions (normative) and how they make (descriptive)

- 1979: Prospect Theory (Kahnemann and Tversky) 

--> humans work with heuristics (reflections of much simpler and less analytical processes)

--> concave relationship between the size of a gain and the value attached to that gain, convex relationship between the size of a loss and the value attached to that loss --> people are risk averse when it comes to gains and risk seeking when it comes to losses)

--> Strength of prospect theory: accommodates many of the well-known violations of classic SEU theory

--> Weakness: provides a description of what people do, but a less convincing of why they do it

--> Apollo’s last stand à still a rational model in itself but catalogues systematic violations of the rational-analytical processes

JDM Today

- Different authors have a different idea of what JDM is

- Field has become more fragmented, making considerable progress in addressing particular issues but without any clear progress on building a sort of grand model

- Any adequate model must include both rational and instinctive components

- Important question: when or why do people adopt an apollonian vs. Dionysian approach to decision making

Person-centered explanations

- suggest that the dominant mode of decision making depends on the persons experience with the task --> novel tasks: step by step rational approach, more familiar tasks: can be solved based on experience

- Some individuals prefer rational, some intuitive, others are spontaneous in their style, others prefer to procrastinate and avoid decisions

Environment-centered Explanations

- Focus on the demands of the task rather than the characteristics of the individual

- Involvement of emotional stimuli: fast; Novel, abstract and unhurried tasks: rational and deliberative

- Person-centered and environment-centered explanations can’t be distincted always: tasks that are novel or unemotional for some decision makers may be familiar and emotionladen to others

Environment as Understood or Represented by the Decision Maker

- Brunwik’s lens model: focus on the way individuals represent environments (in detail: relationship between the cues by which environments are represented)

- Two ways in which decisions could turn out badly: 1) When the cues do not faithfully represent the environment, and 2) when decision makers use cues in ways that do not reflect the true relationship between environments and the cues that characterize them

Similarities:all of them are relatively complex models which explain that the outcome of decision making depends on varying characteristics and not in one formula 

Differences:focus 

1)      Decisions are being taken by using an intuitive and/or rational strategy

2)      Decision tasks are different and different strategies are used for different tasks

3)      Decision makers are different and take different decisions in different and differently efficient ways

- Realistic (interested in working with things or in the outdoor)

- Investigative (interested in science, including mathematics, physical, biological, medical science)

- Artistic (prefer creative expression, including writing , visual – performing arts )

- Social (enjoy helping people)

- Enterprising (like working in leadership or persuasive roles directed towards achieving economic objectives)

- Conventional (interested in working in well-structured environments, especially business settings)

--> Individuals‘ work attitudes and behaviors are influenced by the correlation between their interests & their environment

--> People are more satisfied , successful and more likely to persist in an environment that fits their interests

Person-Environment (P-E) Fit Theory 

= degree of compatibility or match between an individual and the characteristics of his or her environment

- congruence leads to higher outcomes like better performance

- person job fit correlation of .20 on average with job performance

- correlation of .18 with tenure in organization

- interests affect motivation, motivation influences performance so interests also affect performance

- In both the academic and employed samples, we found that interests were moderately correlated with performance and persistence at work and in school

--> interests can be significant predictors of performance outcome

- these results contradict previous research suggesting that interests are only weak predictors of performance

- consistent with Holland’s (2007) theory, congruence indices were found to be stronger predictors of performance criteria (p=.36) than interest scores alone (p=.16)

- personality traits --> five-factor model (FFM) of personality ( Extraversion, Agreeableness, Conscientiousness, Emotional Stability, Openness to Experience)

- vocational interests and preferences --> Holland's RIASEC theory 

- focus of the models is different, but there are somehow related --> Holland (1978): vocational interests may actually be another aspect of personality --> match between personality and vocational aspects (FIT-Model)

Their hypothesises:

- Extraversion will be positively related to vocational interest scores on enterprising and social types (supported)

- Agreeableness will be positively related to vocational interest scores on the socialtype (not supported; previous studies did support this hypothesis)

- Conscientiousness will be positively related to vocational interest scores on the conventional type (supported)

- Openness to Experience will be positively related to vocational interest scores on the artistic and investigative types (supported)

--> Main finding : these models are sometimes related but they are not substitues for each other

--> Strongest relation : Enterprising –extraversion; Artistic-Openness to experience

--> Other moderators can play a role –education, socioeconomic status; complexity of the job

--> Emotional stability is not connected with any types; noFFM trait was related to the realistic Holland type

- already since Stage1 „Building the Relationship“ between the counselor and the client; for diagnosis and building a relationship

- in assessment centers it could be more socially acceptable to ask apllicants for their vocational interests than do a personality test --> if people describe themselves as artistic and investigative types it is more likely that they would also score high on Openness to Experience 

- infering from personality tests to vocational interests --> because personality tests are less obvious

- P-J-Fit refers to the fit between personal characterstics and preferences and certain job attributes (e.g. pay, benefits, type of work)

- P-O-fit refers to the fit between personal characterstics and certain organization attributes (e.g. company image, size, work environment, location, familarity)

- those are two distinct constructs which can be proofed by the following examples: 

--> P-J-Fit high, P-O-Fit low: A person can be extremely happy with a job's characteristics like pay and the type of work he can follow in his occupation. On the other hand the P-O-Fit might be low, because he doesn't like his colleagues and the general working environment. Apart from that it is far from his residence hence he has to drive 2 hours by car every day.

--> P-J-Fit low, P-O-Fit high: It can also be vice versa. A person may love his collegues and the company but his P-J-Fit is low because he feels overwhelmed by the type of work he has to do and the job demands surmount his abilities. 

- J-O-Characteristics like perceived work environment (p=.60) and organizational image (p=.48)

- medium effect sizes: P-O-fit (p=.46); Perception of recruitment process predictors like justice perception (p=.40)

- recruiter demographic variables were not significant predictors of job-organization attraction

- recruiter behaviors: medium effect sizes (.26-.42)

- recruiter characteristics, hiring expectancy and perceived fit were all found to predict job choice through the attitudes mediated model

- JOA= job-organization attraction

- AI= acceptance intentions

- Model B !there is another model for other predictors

Description 

- metaanalysis of 667 coefficients from 71 studies examining relationships between various predictors (job and organizational characteristics, recruiter characteristics, perceptions of the recruitment process, perceived fit, perceived alternatives, hiring expectancies) with job-organization attraction, job pursuit intentions, acceptance intentions and job choice 

- also moderating effects of applicant gender, race, and applicant versus non-applicant status were examined 

Results

- applicant attraction outcomes were predicted by job-organization characteristics, recruiter behavior, perceptions of the recruiting process, perceived fit, and hiring expectancies 

- path-analyses showed that applicants attitudes and intentions mediated the predictor-job choice relationship

1) What is being offered by the organization is related to recruiting outcomes

2) How the recruiting is conducted is important NOT who does the recruiting

3) Perceptions of fit proved to be one of the strongest predictors of the attitudinal attraction outcomes

Limitations: 

- moderator effects rarely as predicted (e.g. perceptions of fairness had weaker effects on job–organizational attraction among women than among men --> opposite to expectation)

- recruiting stage and "degree to which applicants carefully consider recruiting messages" as potential moderator 

-  many of the studies examining attraction and job choice processes involved graduating students seeking their first jobs upon graduation --> results obtained are only as meaningful as the primary studies from which they were derived

- they collapsed narrow predictors into large categories --> Although we found high interrater agreement for the categorization, it remains possible that the broader categories are less homogeneous than desirable

Description

- meta-analysis on the basis of comprehensive review of the interested literature (person-environment fit is related to performance and persistance in work)

- 60 studies and 568 correlations that addressed the relationship between interests and performance

Results

- interests are indeed related to performance and persistence in work and academic contexts 

- correlations between congruence indices and performance were stronger than for interest scores alone

Limitations

- moderators like demographics were not considered (also gender, racial, ethnic groups)

- they considered only measured interests but not expressed interests 

- relationship between interests and job satisfaction/vocational choice was not looked at 

Description 

- examination of the nature and magnitude of the relationship between the five factor model of personality and Holland's RIASEC occupational types 

Results

- Mainfinding: these models are sometimes related but they are not substitues for each other

- Strongest relation : Enterprising –extraversion; Artistic-Openness to experience

- Realistic interest –no FFM trait connected

- Other moderators can play a role –education, socioeconomic status; complexity of the job

- Hypothesis 2 was not supported 

Limitations 

- is there a higher order structure that explains relationships among FFM traits and RIASEC interests

- how does congruence between personality traits and vocational interests relate to motivational processes and to job performance