Phonetics and Phonology

characteristics of production:

Highter fundamental frequency: vocal folds vibrate more quickly ---> perception: as higher pitch

greater duration than unstressed syllables --> perception: as longe than unstressed syllables

with higher intensity --> perception: as louder than unstressed syllables

- while some words are characterized by a clearcut stressed-unstressed dichotomy,

e.g. /ˈfɑð·ər/, /əˈbɑʊt/, /ˈsɪl·ə·bəl/
            (-> stress mark sign (unstressed would be unmarked))

- others have primary and secondary stress:
  / ˈreɪ-ˌdɑr/ (=radar),   compare  /ˈreɪdər/ (<- schwa and compeltely unstressed)

! note the diacritic signs for primary stress (upper vs lower)

- The stress rules (rather: tendencies) in English can be applied to lexical classes:

Verb rule: Stress the final syllable if heavy. If the final
syllable is light stress the penultimate syllable.

examples: /oʊˈbeɪ/ (=obey), /jʊˈsɜrp/ (= to take the lead of sb.),
                              (-> long vowel)  
            /əˈtoʊn/ (=atone)
                   (-> short vowel with a coda)


Light syllables: short vowels no coda
Heavy syllables: all the others
 

- Noun rule: stress the penultimate (second last) syllable if heavy (long vowel w/ or w/out coda or short vowel with coda). If the penultimate syllable is light (short vowel only), stress the antepenultimate  one. (preceding the second to last).
   
examples:  /əˈroʊ·mə/(=aroma), /əˈdʒen·də/ (=agenda), /ˈdɪs·ə·plən/ (=disciplin)

exceptions:  /spəˈge · t̬i/   -> long word
noun rule would predict stress on the initial syllable since the penultimate syllable is light
       
/ˈkæt.ə.mə.ræn/ (=Katamaran) noun rule would predict stress on
              -> penultimate
    the second syllable since the penutimate one is light

- Suffixation, a morphological process, sometimes alters stress pattern
- Stress –attracting suffixes are -ette (diminuitive) and –ese (denoting a language or a sociolect)
    e.g. /ˌkɪtʃ.ɪˈnet/ (=kitchenet), / mʌð·ər ˈiːz/ (=motherize)
                      -> stressed               -> stressed to suffix
Stress-shifting suffixes, e.g. –ic, -ity and –al,  move the stress on the base to which they attach one syllable to the right
e.g /əˈtɑm·ɪk/, /ɪˌlekˈtrɪs·ət̬·i/ (=electricity),
                           -> stressed – „electric“
                                                 -> first syllable stressed
    /pəˈren·təl/ (=parental)
           -> stressed to one syllable to the right (compare with “parent”)
 

- Compounds tend to be stressed on the first element

e.g. /ˈgrinˌhɑʊs/  

- Content words: words whose main function is semantic (referential to extra-linguistic reality)
(This category also includes compounds , phrasal verbs and verbs with prepositions )
-> have at least one stressed syllable

- Compounds tend to receive major stress on the first element, secondary stress on the
second  one.

- Phrasal  verbs:   have a particle that looks like a preposition, but functions as part of the verb:  turn  ON, get BY, put OFF.   The major  stress is on the particle.

- Verbs with prepositions:  e.g. believe in, listen to
--> stress is never on the preposition: beLIEVE in, LISten to

- Function words: words whose main function is grammatical
--> are unstressed
Exception: auxiliary verbs at the end of a sentence
or when used in question tags:
       
You  DID‘nt  just say what I thought I heard, DID you? 
       
Yes, I DID.

``Foot`` = next phonological unit above the syllable

....a stressed syllable has to occur at a given intervall
(in english: 6 seconds)