Landeskunde ENG

Germany:

- from 17th century sugar bakers (economic) to 20th century aristocrats (political/social)

Russia:

- before 1917: radicals (political)

- after 1917: white émigrés (political)

- thriving colony in the 1880s

- influenced the Russian revolutionary movement of the 1890s

- influenced British public opinion between then and WWI

- public became interested in the struggle for freedom in Russia

- many were "White" Russians - on the losing sinde after the Bolshevik Revolution n 1917; others were apoltical

- now known in Russia as first-wave émigrés

- many tried to maintain pre-revolutionary Russian culture

- from all social classes, but many in London were aristocrats and intellectuals

- marked the end of a liberal approach to immigration

- defined those who would be excluded from restriction (i.e. those traveling in 1. or 2. class)

- defined those who would be subject to restriction (i.e. those traveling in steerage)

- authorised officers to inspect those in steerage to check their health and whether they could support themselves in Britain

- 1905 Aliens Act: set up inspectors at ports of entry with the power to refuse entry

- 1914 Aliens Restriction Act: granted wartime powers to regulate entry, stay and deportation of aliens - all aliens had to register with the police

- 1919: Aliens Restriction (Amendment) Act: extended wartime powers, giving wide-sweeping powers to the Secretary of State

- 1920: Aliens Order: introduced more detailed control of aliens and the concept of work permits

- British Nationality and Status Aliens Act 1914 led to the first modern British passport

- League of Nations agreement to standardise passports 1920: Old Blue British passport

- 1988: burgundy colored EC passport

- 1997: EU passport

There was concern about:
- the number of Jewish immigrants and
- the perceived threat posed by political activists,
which led to the 1894 Aliens Bill
• But the Bill failed to pass through parliament because of:
- the lack of protection that it granted to refugees
- general support for free trade, which was associated
with unrestricted immigration
• 1901: unemployment began to rise
• 1901: the British Brothers’ League was established and
mobilised popular support against Jewish immigration
• 1904: Parliament discussed the 1904 Aliens Bill

 1918: end of the First World War
• 1919 race riots in Cardiff, Liverpool and other
sea ports (returning soldiers vs. black workers)
• Government proposed repatriation schemes
• The number of “coloured alien seamen” was
restricted by a special restriction order in 1925
• Discrimination against black workers by white
unions and employers

 1920s: Britain struggled to pay for the
effects of the war
• 1926: there was a General Strike (called
by the Trades Union Congress in support
of miners in the north of England)
• 1929: the US stock market crashed and
world trade slumped
• By the end of 1930: unemployment in
Britain had reached 20 per cent

• Racial prejudice in all levels of white society
• 1931: The Joint Council to Promote
Understanding between White and Coloured
people in Great Britain (Quakers) was
established
• 1931: The League of Coloured Peoples (Dr
Harold Moody) was established
• 1935 rioting in Cardiff: report found “wilful
misapplication” of the Aliens Acts
• “the colour question” was inevitably linked to
“the colonial question”

 1932: BUF launched
- founded by Sir Oswald Mosley, who was
influenced by Benito Mussolini in Italy
- supported by The Daily Mail at first
- supporters were called “Blackshirts”
• 1936: The Battle of Cable Street
• 1936: Public Order Act
(banned political uniforms and required
police consent for public marches)
• 1940: BUF banned by government

• Company Rule: when private companies set up
colonies as private commercial concerns
• Colonies: ruled by a governor on behalf of the British
government and representing the Crown
• Protectorates: old rulers continued to rule but ceded
foreign and defence aspects of government to Britain
• Dominions: had significant freedom to rule themselves
• Mandates: set up after WW1, when German and Turkish
colonies were passed to Britain and France to prepare
for self-government on behalf of the League of Nations

 when private companies set up
colonies as private commercial concerns

 ruled by a governor on behalf of the British
government and representing the Crown

old rulers continued to rule but ceded
foreign and defence aspects of government to Britain

had significant freedom to rule themselves

 set up after WW1, when German and Turkish
colonies were passed to Britain and France to prepare
for self-government on behalf of the League of Nations

• When war broke out in 1939:
- India and the other colonial parts of the
Empire automatically joined in the war,
fighting for Britain
- the self-governing dominions (Australia,
Canada, New Zealand and South Africa)
made their own decision to enter the war
on the British side
- the Irish Free State opted for neutrality

The British Isles
• The Dominions: Canada, Australia, South
Africa, New Zealand
• The Indian sub-continent (2.5 million men
volunteered)
• The West Indies
• East and West Africa
• Nazi-occupied countries

At the end of WWII
• Holocaust survivors
• Prisoners of war remaining in Britain
• Displaced persons (e.g. from DP camps in
Germany and Italy)
• Those fleeing Soviet occupation, especially
Poles and Ukrainians
Many entered UK as European Voluntee

 Leeward Islands (e.g. Antigua, British
Virgin Islands, St Kitts, Nevis)
• Windward Islands (e.g. Grenada, St
Lucia, Barbados)
• Jamaica and its dependencies (e.g.
Cayman Islands, Turks and Caicos)
• British Honduras (now Belize)
• British Guiana (now Guyana)

Labour shortages only partly met by women,
young people and Irish people
• Beginning of government recruitment schemes
• 1,200 British Hondurians to Scotland
• 1,000 West Indian technicians and trainees to
Merseyside and Lancashire
• 10,000 West Indians recruited as RAF ground
crews
• Thousands of colonial seamen entered the
Merchant Navy (often based in British ports)

• Spanish began to colonise the area and plant
sugar cane (16th century)
• Indigenous population declined (e.g. Caribs and
Arawaks)
• British established sugar colonies (17th century)
• White indentured labour was unsuccessful
• African slaves were transported to the area
• After the abolition of slavery (effective in 1840),
indentured labourers from India arrived
• Production of cocoa and other food crops began

• Mixed ethnic backgrounds
• Mixed race populations
• A common language (English)
• Missionaries, church and church schools
(syllabus of English schools)
• Favourite dish (saltfish) = a product of
colonial influence (also rice and peas)
• Knowledge/adoption of British culture
• Bond with the Mother Country

• First arrivals in UK (17th and 18th century)
= slaves, traders, seamen, labourers,
servants
• Later arrivals (19th century) included
students, professionals, artists and
entertainers
• Tendency to settle in major cities and
seaports (especially London and Bristol)

• Migrating to work or study was popular
• USA was the most popular destination
• West Indians served in World War I
• West Indians served in World War II
• Some migration to UK 1948–1955
• 1952: US Immigration and Nationality Act
• More migration to UK 1955–1962
• 1962: UK Commonwealth Immigrants Act

• Independence of colonies in 20th century
(Caribbean colonies 1960–1983)
• Commonwealth of Nations =
intergovernmental organisation with 53
member states (51 were part of British
Empire + Mozambique and Rwanda)
• UK still has 14 overseas territories (e.g.
Bermuda, British Antarctic Territory,
Falkland Islands, Gibraltar) 

• Work (often low status or inconvenient
jobs, such as cleaning, driving, shift-work)
• City life (though the cities were partly in
ruins after the war)
• Very basic accommodation (private, as
five years’ residence was needed to be
eligible for a council house)
• Prejudice and racism/the colour bar and
less appreciation than during WWII, e.g.
“No Blacks, No Dogs, No Irish” signs

• War experiences/knowledge of the country
• Strong identification with Britain
• Sense of adventure/desire to see the world
• Labour shortages in UK (London Transport and
the National Health Service actively recruited in
Jamaica, Barbados and Trinidad)
• Unemployment, poverty and political uncertainty
at home
• Devastating hurricane in Jamaica in 1951
• Change in US law in 1952

Minority ethnic groups suffered most (even
though the number of West Indian
migrants was small when compared with
Irish settlers and those from European
countries) because they were more
“visible”
• Immigrants were actually still needed (in
1956, there were more unfilled vacancies
than unemployed people in Britain)

• The Immigration Act (1962) was introduced,
affecting black and black Asian people
• The main points of this law were:
- an employment voucher was needed to enter
the UK
- the number of vouchers per year was limited
- to get a voucher, proof was needed of a job
offer in the UK or specialist skills or
qualifications that matched the UK’s needs
• The Act did not apply to white migrants
• The number of vouchers was decreased in 1965 

• Music (e.g. calypso and reggae)
• Festivals (Notting Hill Carnival)
• Religion (often establishing own,
community-based churches)
• Food (Caribbean shops/ingredients)
• Passions they shared with the British (e.g.
love of cricket and football)

• Their arrival represented the first step on the
path to multiculturalism, changing British society
profoundly
• They challenged prejudice and the superior
attitudes of Empire times (starting with the The
League of Coloured Peoples in 1931)
• Many married white British people
• They forged a Black British identity, helped by
their music, dress and dance, which have also
influenced white youth
 

• 16th century: African attendants of Catherine of Aragon;
court musicians, trainee interpreters, black seamen freed
from Spanish ships in war against Spain
• 17th and 18th centuries: slaves, freed slaves, seamen
and traders
• 19th century: soldiers and sailors after Napoleonic wars,
dockside communities
• 20th century: port cities; WW1 = soldiers, merchant
seamen and students; WW2 = wartime workers,
merchant seamen and servicemen; post-war migration
from West Indies; since 1980s = migration from e.g.
Nigeria, Ghana, Uganda, Kenya and Zimbabwe

• African, West Indian and Indian sailors have a long
history on British Navy and commercial vessels
• Recruitment from colonies
• Atlantic trade dominated by slavery until 1807 (abolition
of slave trade in UK)
• Communities of black sailors (and their local-born
descendants) grew in ports such as London, Bristo and,
Liverpool
• See information on the transatlantic trade triangle on
Moodle