human factors
humane faktoren
humane faktoren
Fichier Détails
Cartes-fiches | 91 |
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Langue | Deutsch |
Catégorie | Littérature |
Niveau | Université |
Crée / Actualisé | 17.05.2024 / 17.05.2024 |
Lien de web |
https://card2brain.ch/box/20240517_human_factors
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training + selection: how can training help to prevent accidentss on the road?
Driver Education:
- Training programs include both knowledge tests and behind-the-wheel training. However, evidence on their effectiveness in improving safety is limited.
- Simulator Training: Increasing attention is given to driving simulators for effective training, especially for emergency conditions.
automation and vehicles; which components play nowardays a role when driving?
Automobile automation includes components like collision monitors, automated navigation systems, and driver monitors, developed under the Intelligent Vehicle Highway System (IVHS). These technologies rely on advances such as the global positioning system (GPS) and intelligent roadway sensors for real-time location and traffic updates.
Intelligent Vehicle Highway Systems (IVHS):
- Technologies like collision monitors and automated navigation systems improve safety but require careful implementation to avoid over-reliance.
Key Automation Components:
- Collision Monitors: Detect the rate of closure with vehicles ahead and provide warnings.
- Automated Navigation Systems: Use in-vehicle computers and GPS for route planning.
- Driver Monitors: Track driver behavior and provide alerts for safer driving.
Issues with Automation:
- User Trust and Complacency: Over-reliance on automated systems may lead to drivers not monitoring the road adequately. In cases of system failure, drivers might react too slowly to prevent accidents. High reliability of automated systems might increase complacency, reducing driver vigilance.
- Attention Diversion: Secondary information systems (e.g., navigation aids) might divert attention from the primary task of driving. Displaying such information "head-up" can help, but it must be ensured that it doesn't obscure critical road views.
à While automation offers significant safety enhancements, it must be introduced carefully within a human-centered framework to avoid over-reliance and ensure that drivers remain engaged and attentive to the primary task of driving.
public transportation; what is relevant with regard to safety and efficiency, system design and behavioral changes?
Safety and Efficiency:
- Comparative Safety: Public transportation (buses, trains, subways) is statistically safer than private vehicles due to better training and vehicle design.
- Environmental Benefits: Public transportation reduces pollution per passenger mile compared to personal vehicles.
- And sometimes it is sometimes much more efficient to take public transportation than to sit immobile in traffic jams during rush hour.
As a consequence of these differences in safety, efficiency, and environmental pollution, it is apparent that one of the important human factors issues in public ground transportation lies in the efforts to induce behavioral changes of the traveling and commuting public-making this segment of the population more aware of the lower risks, lower costs, and greater efficiency of public transportation. Equally important are systemwide efforts to improve the accessibility of public transportation by designing schedules and routings in accordance with people's travel needs, and so on.
System Design:
- User-Friendly Design: Effective public transportation systems require well-maintained infrastructure, efficient scheduling, and user-friendly design to attract more users and reduce road traffic.
Behavioral Changes:
- Encouraging Public Use: Efforts to make the public aware of the lower risks, lower costs, and greater efficiency of public transportation are essential.
what are key aspects of pilot tasks and challanges for them in aviation?
Key Aspects of Pilot Tasks:
- Complex Multitask Environment: Pilots manage six degrees of freedom: pitch, roll, yaw, and three translational axes (lateral, vertical, and longitudinal). This involves maintaining airspeed and attitude to avoid stalling and navigating to precise points in 3-D space (4-D navigation in commercial aviation).multidimensional compared to driving.
- Situational Awareness: Maintaining awareness of hazards and the state of automated systems is critical.
- Navigation: Flying to specific points.
- Procedures: Following aircraft and airspace operation protocols.
- Communication: Coordinating with air traffic control and flight deck personnel.
Challenges in Piloting:
- Displays: Pilots must gather information from multiple instruments, unlike car drivers who primarily look ahead.
- Control Dynamics: Aircraft control involves higher-order systems and is more sluggish due to inertia, requiring anticipation and prediction to avoid instability.
Axis Interactions: Changes in one axis (e.g., pitch) affect others (e.g., airspeed), requiring a thorough understanding of flight dynamics
how do workload variations and display design play a roel for pilots?
Workload Variations:
- Underload: Conditions like transoceanic flights.
- Extreme Overload: Situations such as military combat missions or flying in bad weather.
à These complexities make piloting a more demanding task compared to driving, with a higher need for managing various perceptual, cognitive, and response-related resources.
Display Design:
- Advanced Displays: Modern aircraft use integrated electronic displays and HUDs to provide critical information without diverting attention from the outside view.
- Proximity Compatibility: Displays are designed to provide the right information in the right form at the right time.
- Traditional flight instruments display critical information like airspeed, pitch, and bank but do not always directly indicate critical states like nearing a stall. Pilots need to frequently shift their gaze across various instruments to gather necessary information, unlike car drivers who mainly look ahead.
- Display Innovations: Modern displays incorporate human factors principles:
- Proximity Compatibility: Information is grouped by relevance.
- Moving Part and Pictorial Realism: Displays are designed to be intuitive.
- Advanced displays provide prediction and preview features, aiding in anticipating future positions and commands. However, 3-D displays, while promising, can introduce ambiguity in spatial judgment.
how do crew ressource management, stress and workload, automation and safety, control dynamics and play a role in aviation?
Crew Resource Management (CRM):
- Teamwork and Communication: CRM training programs focus on improving communication and decision-making among flight crews, reducing accidents caused by communication breakdowns.
Stress and Workload:
- Managing Stressors: Pilots face physical and psychological stressors. Training and simulation help manage these stressors and improve emergency response skills.
Automation and Safety:
- Supporting Pilot Performance: Automation, such as predictive displays, supports pilot performance but must be carefully managed to avoid over-reliance and maintain situational awareness.
Control Dynamics
- Aircraft control is more complex due to high inertia and higher-order dynamics:
- Heading and Altitude: These are second-order tasks, where changes affect the rate of heading and altitude adjustments.
- Lateral Position: This is a third-order task, more challenging due to delays in response to inputs.
à Pilots must predict and anticipate changes to avoid instability and oscillations in control.
how do axis interactions play a role for pilots when working?
Axis Interactions
- Aircraft dynamics involve complex interactions between axes:
- Pitch Changes: Affect both altitude and airspeed.
- Roll Changes: Intended for heading adjustments, also impact pitch and can increase stall risk.
- The skilled pilot must form a very accurate mental model of these flight dynamics to achieve effective control.
- Conventionally, the difficult task of learning to control the aircraft has been addressed through many hours of training both in flight simulators and in the air to move the declarative knowledge of flight dynamics to effective procedural knowledge.
- Aircraft designers have been moving toward incorporating human factors display principles to design more "user-friendly" displays. Given the sluggish nature of aircraft dynamics, a valuable feature on almost every advanced display is the availability of prediction (of future aircraft position) and preview (of future command input). Farther in the future and less well established in terms of its benefits is the implementation of 3-D displays
Maintaining Situation Awareness
Pilots need to maintain awareness of both external hazards and the state of automated systems. Effective display design is crucial for providing the right information at the right time:
- Head-Up Displays (HUDs): Allow monitoring without looking away from the outside view, though they must avoid clutter.
- Integrated Electronic Displays: Offer a broader view but must balance detail and precision to avoid reducing tracking accuracy.
why is it essential for pilots to follow procedures?
Aircraft pilots must reliably execute a series of actions during flights. These actions can be routine (e.g., lowering landing gear, setting flaps) or contingent on unpredictable circumstances (e.g., closed runways, engine failures). Failure to follow procedures can be fatal, as demonstrated by the 1987 Detroit Metropolitan Airport crash, where neglecting to set the flaps led to a deadly accident.
- Checklists: Used to ensure all procedures are followed. Errors can occur due to top-down processing or distractions in a multitask environment. Due to the vast amount of procedural information (FAA Regulations, aircraft operating manuals), pilots cannot be expected to remember everything. To aid their prospective memory (remembering to do the right things at the right time), checklists are used. Checklists are extensive, covering different flight phases (preflight, taxi, takeoff) and operating conditions (normal, engine out, fire). Common error with checklists:
- Top-Down Processing Errors: Under time pressure, pilots might "see" items in their expected state even if they are not.
- Multitask Environment Distractions**: Distractions can cause pilots to skip steps in the checklist. Attention diverted by another task may return to the checklist at a later step, skipping the pending one.
- Human Factors Solutions to these errors:
- Redundant Participation:
- Involves two crew members verifying checklist items.
- The "challenge and response" method: One crew member challenges the other to check an item and waits for a verbal response before proceeding.
- Automation:
- Automation can redundantly check and report the status of switches and tasks.
- Electronic checklists may require pilots to actively confirm completion, ensuring monitoring of task status.
- Redundant Participation:
what are components of The Social Context in Aircraft Piloting and why is this important?
Teamwork in Piloting:
- Pilots operate as part of multiple teams:
- Flight Deck Team: Collaboration with other flight crew members.
- Air Traffic Control Team: Interaction with air traffic controllers managing their sector.
- Onboard Mission Team: Coordination with personnel on specific missions (e.g., cabin crew, medical personnel, military operators).
Communication Importance:
- Communication, primarily via voice, is critical in aviation:
- Incidents from Breakdown: Over half of flying incidents result from communication breakdowns.
- Voice Communication Vulnerability: Errors can arise from both bottom-up and top-down processing.
- Key Information Omissions: Failures often occur because essential information is not relayed, not just because of misheard statements.
Hierarchical Communication Challenges:
- Breakdowns often happen due to hierarchical dynamics:
- Junior Crew Reluctance: Junior members may hesitate to point out issues to senior captains.
- Senior Crew Responsibility: Senior members need to foster an open environment for information sharing.
Cockpit Resource Management (CRM):
- In response to these issues, CRM training was developed:
- Training Components: Case studies of communication breakdowns. Simulated flight exercises with behavior critiques. Guidelines for fostering open communication and clear information sharing.
- Guidelines: Emphasize assertiveness and clarity (e.g., direct statements about altitude).
Broadening CRM:
- CRM has evolved to include:
- Wider Team Inclusion: Relevant for all teams, including cabin crew and air traffic controllers, as well as teams outside aviation (e.g., medical operating rooms).
- Resource Inclusion: Covers all resources, including automated systems and the pilot's attentional resources.
CRM Effectiveness:
- CRM programs have proven effective:
- Accident Rate Reduction: Significant drops in accident rates have been observed in organizations after implementing CRM programs.
how do stress and impairmant play a role in aviation?
Stringent Training and Licensing:
- Higher Standards: Training and licensing for pilots are much stricter compared to driving, reducing the prevalence of alcohol, fatigue, and age-related impairments.
- Perceived Risk: The higher perceived risk in flying contributes to these stringent requirements.
Physical and Psychological Stressors:
- Aircraft Environment: Loaded with potential stressors affecting performance both directly and indirectly.
- Student Pilots:
- Psychological Stress: High risk of crashing increases stress, especially during early solo flights.
- Cognitive Breakdowns: Stress can lead to breakdowns in information-processing skills, highlighting the need for extensive use of flight simulators for emergency training.
Other Stressors for Pilots:
- Military Pilots: Face combat danger, high gravitational forces, and physical restrictions.
- Light Aircraft Pilots: Prone to motion sickness and spatial disorientation, especially when flying in clouds.
- High Workload: Imposed on single pilots in bad weather, military pilots in combat, pilots before landing, and helicopter pilots on low-ground missions.
- Environmental Stressors: Vibration, noise, and heat can enhance physical stress, particularly for helicopter pilots.
Aircraft Automation
Forms of Automation:
- Autopilots: Assist with tracking tasks and reduce workload.
- Route Planners: Aid in navigation.
- Collision Avoidance Monitors: Enhance traffic and terrain monitoring.
- Flight Management Systems: Optimize flight paths for economic benefits (fuel conservation).
Human Factors in Automation:
- Many automation guidelines stem from accident analysis and research.
- Emphasis on human-centered automation to ensure safety and efficiency.
what is a nice Summary of Air Traffic Control (ATC) with regard to human factors?
Role and Responsibilities:
- Air traffic controllers (ATCs) are responsible for managing the safe and efficient flow of aircraft through airspace, similar to industrial process control but with unique complexities:
- Multiple Entities: Controllers manage multiple aircraft, each with dynamic interrelationships.
- Conflicting Goals: They must balance safety (wide separation) with efficiency (high throughput of aircraft).
Types of Air Traffic Controllers:
- Tower Controllers: Manage aircraft on the ground, taxiing, takeoff, and landing.
- Terminal Radar Approach Controllers (TRACON): Control aircraft within 20-50 miles of airports using radar displays.
- En Route Controllers: Manage cross-country air traffic between TRACON areas, also using radar.
Control Process
- Verbal and Discrete Control: ATC uses verbal instructions or "clearances" to pilots, making voice communication critical.
- Inputs and Goals: Controllers aim to maximize traffic flow while ensuring safety through maintaining minimum separation between aircraft.
- Visual-Spatial Mental Model: Controllers interpret radar data, flight strips, and radio communications to maintain a "big picture" of the airspace.
System Sluggishness
- Delayed Response: Commands to aircraft (speed, altitude, heading) take time to manifest, necessitating prediction and planning.
- Predictor Displays: These aids help controllers anticipate future positions and potential conflicts.
Teamwork and Communication:
- Two Teams:
- Controller and Pilots**: Ensuring coordinated actions.
- Controllers at a Facility**: Handing off aircraft between sectors and providing mutual support.
- High Workload: The second source of difference from much of process control concerns work- load. Unlike process control, ATC workload is consistently high, with adaptive and maladaptive effects.
Safety and Efficiency:
- Redundancy and Professionalism: The ATC system is highly safe due to redundancy and skilled workforce.
- Pressure for Automation: There is ongoing pressure to automate ATC functions to improve efficiency and reduce delays.