2013 HSC COURSE

Assists the removal of nitrogenous wastes in the form of urea (in mammals)

A build up nitrogenous wastes is toxic to cells and prevents metabolic activity from occuring 

Also regulates salt and water concentration, blood sugar etc

At the time of publication widespread belief was the the earth was 6000 years old and was created by a divine creater who created all organisms in their current form and placed humans at the top of this heirarchy 

effect by which an increase in C02 in the blood (from greater respiration occuring) results in a reduction of the affinity of oxygen to haemoglobin 

This facillitates the delievery of oxygen to rapidly respiring tissues (more oxygen is given off to tissues)

e.g of how technology has changed scientific thinking 

originally thhough humans were most related to orangutans 

technological advantages in DNA sequencing found humans to be more closely related to chimpanzes and apes than orangutans 

Taxonomy changed to place apes and chimps in homidae family and orangutans in the pongidae family 

Pros: dont need to travel to a medical centre, no needle sticks, self treatment, few fluid / food restrictions, improved blood pressure control, flexible exchange 

Cons: catheter may lead to self consciousness, fliud --> feel bloated, risk of infection, daily exchagnes , no tub bathing 

Plasma 

- liquid H20 

- Co2 

- nitrogenous wastes 

- digested products 

- salts 

RBCs 

- 02 

-Co2

~ 70% enters RBCs combining with water to form carbonic acid (H+  + HCO-)

~23% attaches to haemoglobin 

~ 7% dissolved in plasma

.The balance of salt and water concentration in the body 

essential to ensure cells dont burst, loose to much H2O and die, and ensure optimum metabolic conditions 

Provide evidence for the theory of evolution 

Key fossils depicting intermediatary stages between major classes 

Suggest that all of current classes are linked - have related ancestory 

e.g. Thrinaxadon - depict the intermediatary stage between repitles and mammals. Has both reptile features (lays eggs, scales) and mammal features (warm blood, whiskers, possible fur coat)

invasive method of detecting an 02, C02 or pH imbalance  , the severity of the imbalance and if it is metabolic or respiratory 

Blood is taken from an artery and passed through artificial membranes 

02 creates a current, while C02 changes the pH 

Used in respiratory, metabolic and kidney disease 

also used in newborns to uncover any future respiratory problems 

C02 is a waste product of digestion 

Must be removed in order to maintain optimum enzyme activity, as otherwise 70% combines with water in the RBCs to form carbonic acid which decreases the blood pH

Process carried out by some animals in which the internal environment is kept constant 

includes: pH, temperature, salt conc, water conc, blood pressure 

Results in optimum conditions for enzymes 

- An increase in oxygen and a decrease in carbon dioxide is evident when the blood passes through the lungs   - A decrease in oxygen and increase in carbon dioxide is noted when the blood passes through any organ other than lungs   - An increase in digestive end products is evident in blood that passed through an organ involved in absorbing digested food (small intestines). These products travel into the bloodstream directly into the liver   - A decrease in digestive end products (glucose, fatty acids, amino acids) is evident as blood leaves the liver, as it is the center of food metabolism   - An increase in nitrogenous wastes as the blood leaves the liver, as it is the organ in which proteins are de-aminated   - A decrease in nitrogenous wastes as the blood passes through the kidneys, since they filter the wastes and excrete them

Political 

1. church's political influence prevented theory from being taught in schools 

2. Challenged the devine right of kings 

Social 

1. Challenged widely held beliefs and church status and power

2. lack of understanding of genetics at the time 

3. people through they were of a higher order than primates and therefore were reluctant 

4. Wallace and malthus support (similar ideas)

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RBCs - transport 02 and C02 to and from tissues 

WBCs - fight infection

Platelets - clotting factors 

Plasma - transports H20, C02, nitrogenous wastes and digestion products, contains all coagulation factors 

Cyroprecipitate - concentration of clotting factors 

Example of natural selection 

Moth in England with colour variations. Hunted by small birds it camoflages on tree bark 

pre industrial evolution - lichen on trees - white moth varient advantagous - white adaption 

during industrial revolution - lichen died, soot covered bark - black varient advantagous - black adaption

hormone that regulates the amount of water reabsorbtion in the nephron - therefore helps regulate body fluid composition 

ADH is released by the pituitary gland and changes the permability of the collecting duct to water depending on water levels in the blood

Liquid H20 is the solvent making up 90% of plasma

Process by which the proteins are broken down in the liver 

1. C02 forms carbonic acid in water which decreases the blood pH impairing metabolic activity

2. excess mineral salts affect the osmotic pressure in cells. Metabolic processes are more efficient when cells and surroundsings are isotonic 

3. Nitrogenous wastes are toxic to cells and prevents / retards metabolic activity 

Defficiency where either the level of Hb or RBCs are lower than normal

therefore in order to supply the same amount of oxygen to the body the heart needs to work harder 

Method of dialysis in which the blood is circulated outside of the body through a dialysis machine

Blood is taken from a vascular access, passed through the dialysis circuit (semi permeable artificial membrane surrounded by dialysis fluid) before being returned 

aim: to determine the effect of dissolved C02 on the pH of water 

hypothesis: dissolved C02 will decrease the pH of water 

risk: limewater can cause skin irritation. As such wear gloves and safety specs 

independant: amount of dissolved C02 in the water 

dependant: pH of water 

controlled variables: time, temperature

control: blowing into limewater should cause it to turn milky in the presence of CO2 

materials: 2x testubes 1x 5ml water 1x 5ml limewater, 2x straw 1x pH probe 1x data logger 

method: 1. put 5mL of limewater into a testube and 5mL of water into another 2. blowing into the limewater using a staw to test for the presence of C02 3. set up pH probe in testube filled with water, blow into using the other straw for 3 minutes 4. record data 

Carried dissolved in the plasma

Whole blood - transfusions for blood loss during surgery / serious injury

RBSs - used for anaemia 

Platelets - haemorrahage 

Plasma - bleeding problems post trauma and liver transplants

Cyroprecipitate - massive bleeding + haemophillia A

WBCs - compromised immune systems 

Each enzyme works at an optimum pH 

On either side of this enzyme activity drops at enzyme bonds denature

modern day example of evolution 

V - bacterial reproduce asexually very fast - some individuals are born with variations 

E - Environmental pressure - antiobiotic - favours variations that are resistant 

R - Only bacteria that survive (bacteria with favourable variation) can pass on their genes

A - Adaption occurs as over time the variation becomes predominant in the population

Evolution leading to different species / evolution pathways becoming more similar through sharing similar environmental pressures

Example: Dolphin (mammal) and Shark (fish) both have streamlined bodies 

Attaches to haemoglobin to form oxyhaemoglobin (Hb02) complex

Each Hb molecule can carry 4 02 

02 is required for respiration 

Respiration = process by which cells convert nutrient energy into ATP

C6H1206 + 602 ---. 6H20 + 6C02 + 36 ATP

Transported through the blood stream via lipoproteins along the phospholipids and cholesterol 

lipoproteins = protein coated package that helps the transport of lipid molecules through watery mediums

Steriod hormone secreted by adrenal gland that regulates the reabsorption of salts and indirectly H20

The amount of aldosterone released changes the amount of ions reabsorbed by active transport in the nephron (also changes amount of H20 reabsorbed through changing the concentration gradient)

There are two stages of homeostasis 

1. detecting change from stable state (via receptors and sensory neurone)

2. Counteracting changes from stable state (via effectors and effector neurone)