20th Century History
Lecturers cut
Lecturers cut
Why couldn't reform communism resolve the fundamental problems of communism?
Once people have a taste of freedom they only want more.
Liberalising the economy is a move towards capitalism which defeats the purpose of being communist.
Exposure to the west leads to desire for more western society and ideals
What factors led to the final collapse of communism?
(1) External and diplomatic pressures. (2) Internal political and economic weakness. (3) Mass protest from below.
There are now only five states left in the world that claim to be communist. Name them.
China
North Korea
Vietnam
Cuba
Laos
Identify three major reasons for decolonisation in the period after 1945.
(1) Europe had been weakened by two world wars and European populations were losing interest in empire. (2) Both the two superpowers (USA and USSR) were hostile to the old European empires. (3) Nationalist movements in colonised countries had been strengthened by the war.
Indonesia (1945-49), Vietnam (1946-54), Kenya *1952-60), Angola (1961-1970) and Mozambique (1964-74)
lack of infrastructure, ethnic tensions, poverty, weak economies, lack of sense of nationhood, often authoritarian governments
(1) At first Indian nationalism was largely confined to elites, but it gradually became a mass movement. (2) At first its goals were relatively moderate (more self-government and fairer trade relations) but by the 1920s the nationalists wanted full independence. (3) A gradual but increasingly bitter split emerged between the Indian National Congress and the Muslim League
In the 1920's they knew they would eventually have to leave but by slow gradual process. In the 1940's they were not in a mood to negotiate. By 1947 they wanted out as quickly as possible.
What were the three strands in the long process by which India gained independence?
(1) British initiatives to grant more self-government to India, coupled with attempts to negotiate with
Indian leaders. (2) Indian protests against British rule, most of which were non-violent. (3) Rising communal violence between Hindus and MuslimsThe territory of the Raj was partitioned into two states, India and Pakistan. As a result of massive communal violence, millions of Muslims living in India fled to Pakistan, and millions of Hindus and Sikhs living in Pakistan fled to India
Why were the French so reluctant to give up Algeria?
They saw Algeria as a part of France
The Setif Massacre. Parade of Muslims celebrating the end of WWII was fired on by French Army. Waves of reprisals then ensued as both sides descended in to spiral of violence.
When did the FLN begin its insurgency against French rule?
1954
the French were divided about giving up Algeria. sections of the French army were in virtual open
revolt against the government. The crisis was resolved by the appointment of Charles de Gaulle as leader of the French government.What was the outcome of the war in Algeria?
De Gaulle became convinced that France had to withdraw from Algeria. In March 1961 peace talks with the FLN were announced. The French community in Algeria was bitterly opposed to Algerian independence, but was unable to stop it. In July 1962 Algeria was granted independence.
Algeria gained independence but huge massacres ensued. The government has never been stable since.
Characterised by ethnic nationalism e.g muslim vs piednoirs, hindu vs muslim
Both British and French saw these countries as integral to their empires
Both struggles for independence began with elites and then spread to mass movements
Both processes were not moving quickly enough to satisfy the desires of those who wanted independence
Both experienced violence on unarmed citizens as method of control and opposition to uprising.
(1) Both British and French governments at first regarded India/Algeria as vital to national interests: (2) In both colonial India and colonial Algeria, racism was endemic. In both, the bulk of the population was rural and poor: (3) In both, nationalism emerged amongst indigenous elites and only gradually spread to the mass of the population; (4) In both, the nationalist movement became more radical over time, in part in reaction to massacres (Amritsar, Sétif); (5) Both the British and French attempted reforms, but these failed to satisfy the nationalists; (6) In both, the road to independence was complicated by divisions within the population (Pieds-Noirs v Arabs, Muslim League v INC); (7) In both, the struggle for independence unleashed massive communal violence; (8) In both, the struggle for independence was ultimately successful.
Identify at least THREE differences between the struggle for independence in India and Algeria.
Brits were prepared to leave India, French refused to consider it.
Peaceful, unarmed protest was major part of India's struggle, Algeria's was a bloodbath
India;s struggle did not become major problem for Britain itself. Algeria's struggle led to planned military coup in France.
(1) The British arrived much sooner at the realisation that independence was inevitable; (2) The number of British people living in India was tiny, whereas 1m French people lived in Algeria: (3) The role of the British and French armies were very different; (4) Greater willingness of British to negotiate allowed Nehru, Jinnah and Gandhi to play leading role. In Algeria, the intransigence of the French allowed the radical nationalists to take the lead; (5) The INC and Muslim League together probably had more popular support than the FLN; (6) In Algeria, nationalists resorted to armed insurrection. In India, the British and the
nationalists arrived at a negotiated solution; (7) The issue of Algerian independence became a much bigger and more divisive issue in France than the issue of Indian independence in Britain; (8) The worst violence in India followed independence. The worst violence in Algeria preceded independence; (9) India after independence has been a relatively stable democracy. This was not true of AlgeriaWhat was Zionism and how did Zionists attempt to achieve their goals?
Zionism was a Jewish political movement that emerged at the end of the C.19th . Its primary goal was the establishment of a Jewish homeland. There were numerous different political strands within Zionism. The Zionists sought to achieve a Jewish homeland through negotiating with the Great Powers and sponsoring Jewish immigration to Palestine.
When was the state of Israel founded?
1948
Phase #1 (1964 to 1982): Armed struggle waged by the PLO against Israel. Phase #2 (1982-1994): The PLO re-orientated toward a two-state solution through negotiation. Phase #3 (1994 to present): Division between the PLO and Hamas.
Identify at least three important social, economic and or political changes that took place during course of the twentieth century.
World War I
The Treaty of Versailles
World War II
The rise of Communism
The collapse of communism and the fall of the Berlin Wall
The rise of Nationalism
The struggle for independence
The struggle for civil rights
Identify at least three ways in which the twentieth century saw sustained improvements in the overall quality of life.
The collapse of communism - move towards democracy
The struggle for independence - retreat of colonialism
Struggle for civil rights - move towards equality for all people
Identify at least three ways in which the twentieth century impacted negatively on human society.
Nazism - world war II - antisemitism - jewish holocaust
Communism - restriction of personal freedoms, economic strain, global fear (Cold War, East vs West)
Struggle for independence and nationalism - Algeria, Israel/ palestine - bloodshed on huge scale
Name the countries including those that are not numbered
1.Ireland
2.Britain
3.France
4.Portugal
5.Spain
6.Switzerland
7.Germany
8.Italy
9.Serbia
10.Austria-Hungary
11.Greece
12.Bulgaria
13.Romania
14.Russia
15.Turkey
16.Ottoman Empire
Unamed clockwise
1. Belgium
2.Holland
3.Denmark
4.Norway
5.Sweden
6.Albania
By what kinds of governments were pre WWI European states governed?
Parliamentary republics (France)
Constitutional Monarchies (Great Britain, Italy, Serbia)
Semi-autocracies (Germany, Austria-Hungary)
Autocracies (Russia)
Why did growing Nationalism before WWI lead to tensions both between and within states?
Because of ethnic rivalries between minorities. There was tension between states over proper borders - ownership and control of areas.
Which were the 4 main industrial powers in pre-war WWI Europe? Whic of these two were well established industrial powers and which two were rapidly industralising?
Germany, Britain, France, Russia
Britain and France
Germany and Russia
Which European country was experiencing the most rapid urbanisation prior to WWI?
Germany
What was happening to population numbers in pre WWI Britain, France and Germany?
In Britain and France the population growth had slowed. In Germany the population was experiencing radical, phenomenal growth.
In all populations there was a migration of population from rural areas to cities.
What radical political movements emerged before WWI to challenge the status quo within European states?
Marxist movements e.g. German Social Democratic Party (SDP) - seeks to destroy capitalism - biggest socialist party in world
Populist radical right wing - hostlie, nationalistic. Authoritarian, anti semitic, racist - social darwinism. Building blocks of fascism, nazism.
Minority Nationalism - e.g. Sinn Fein (Ireland) and various parties in Eastern Europe (e.g. Polish socialists, Young Czech party etc)
Which three countries made up the 'triple entente'?
Italy, Austria-Hungary, Germany
Which three countries made up the Central Powers?
Russia, France, Britain
What event triggered the European Alliance systems, leading to the July Crisis and the outbreak of war in August 1914?
The assasination of Arch-Duke Franz Ferdinand and his wife in Sarajevo (heir to the throne of the Austria-Hungarian Empire)
Identify at least three different schools of interpretation that attempt to explain why war broke out in August 1914.
1. German Imperialism- Germany had a premeditated plan for European domination. Domestic politics deeply troubled - massive aggrieved working class looking to marxism/ socialism/ radical parties, questions of identity (saxon? Prussian?Bavarian?), Religious tension between protestants and catholics. Plan was to unite all Germans in common goal of foreign expansion (WAR) to solve domestic problems.
2.German geo-political vulnerability. Their rivals together were more powerful than them. They were falling behind in the arms race. They needed to defend themselves.
3. Military factors - The germans declared a pre-emptive war because they were falling behind in the arms race. The Schlieffen plan was intended to quickly overcome France quickly and transport Germans across Europe to meet the threat of Russians. Didn't work.
Which countries fought on the side of the allies in WWI?
Great Britain
France
Russia
Serbia
Italy (from 1915)
USA
Portugal
Romania
Greece
Which countries fought on the side of the central powers in WWI?
Germany
Austria-Hungary
Turkey
Bulgaria
Why were the central powers at a disadvantage from the very beginning of WWI?
They had less resources at their disposal - less population, army, ships. Could not sustain a long war
What were the five great gambles of the germans to find a shortcut to victoy in WWI?
1. The Schlieffen plan - invade France via Belgium with a plan to then attack Russia before they could mobilise. French fought hard. Plan failed.
2. The German Offensive on the Eastern Front 1915
Concentrate main efforts in East to attack Russia (reverse Schlieffen Plan to east) - idea was to knock Russia out of the war whilst holding the western front. Not enough troops, supplies etc. Plan Fails
3. Battle of Verdun 1916 - Attack French at Verdun on the front line, bleed them to death and weaken France to force them out of the war. France fights hard for verdun for political reasons - plan fails but total bloodbath.
4. Unrestricted submarine warfare 1917 - German plan to starve Britain and France by cutting supplies from USA. use of U-Boat to sink subs - famous sinking of Lusitania. convoys & new technologies reduces sinkings Fails and USA enter war April 1917
5. March - July 1918- Massive push to win western front before arrival of americans. Transfer majority of army from east to west, throw everything they've got at it. Stave civilians to care for troops etc but run out of steam due to supply problems and exhaustion. Plan fails
Why was it so difficult for either side to achieve decisive military victories on the battlefield in WWI?
The impact of military technology
1. Kill Zone
2. Armour and protection
3. Mobility
4. Supply
Trench warfare
Medical advances = less deaths and able to remobilise soldiers.
Identify some of the technical innovations that took place during WWI that made it possible for armies to fight the war more effectively
Tactics:
Preliminary bombardment
Counter Battery fire - locate enemy artillery and destroy it
Creeping barrage - force enemy in to dugout so you can cross no-mans land
bite and hold - creeping barrage in chunks
Tanks
Multiple exploratory attacks - groups of roughly 30 men with many diff types of weapons, use terrain to get across no mans land
medical advances
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Cartes-fiches
What were the 3 main strategies that the west used at various times to deal with the communist world?
Containment
Detente
Rollback
What strategies were pursued by Harry Truman?
Containment, detente & Rollback
What strategies were pursued by Eisenhower?
Containment, drifting towards roll-back.
What foreign policy issues dominated the Presidency of Kennedy and Johnson
Vietnam, Cuba, Germany
Identify at least 5 reasons why the American intervention in vietnam failed to prevent the spread of communism from north to south
The skill and determination of the Viet Cong. The topography of Vietnam made operations against the Viet Cong very difficult. Many US tactics, e.g. pacification, the use of Agent Orange etc. were counter-productive and increased support for the Viet Cong amongst the Vietnamese peasantry. Restrictions were placed by American politicians on the US armed forces. The South Vietnamese government was corrupt and incompetent. There was significant opposition to the war inside the USA itself. The Johnson administration was reluctant to try and mobilise patriotic sentiment because it might create public pressure for a more aggressive US policy (which could lead to a global confrontation). Key American allies, e.g. Britain, failed to support the intervention.
Which presidents were associated with the policy of detente?
Nixon, Ford and Carter
What event caused US policy to swing away from Detente towards a more aggressive stance to the USSR?
The soviet invasion of Afghanistan 1979
What were the main planks of Ronald Reagans policy towards the communist world
Rollback and detente. Reagan massively increased arms expenditure and launched SDI. He actively supported anti-Communist rebellions and dissident movements (above all in Afghanistan). But he also negotiated with the Soviets over arms reductions.
Identify at least three of the main positions in the debate about the end of the cold war.
(1) Reagan won the Cold War (roll-back worked!); (2) Reagan built successfully on the work of previous administrations; (3) Détente worked; (4) It was Gorbachev, not Reagan, who ended the Cold War.
What were the three structrual problems of communist regimes?
Legitimacy - not elected
Economically inefficient
military competition with the west
How did reform communists attempt to resolve the structural problems of communism?
Less oppression
negotiate with west
liberalising economy
How did neo stalinists attempt to resolve the structural problems of communism?
repression, forced industrialisation and massive arms expenditure
Identify five great popular upheavals against communism in the period 1953 - 1981
GDR (1953), Poland (1956), Hungary (1956), Czechoslovakia (1968), Poland (1980-81)
In what way was the last of these upheavals different to the previous four
Poland - Solidarity - workers union that emerged independently of the communist party. Other movements emerged because of the split between neo stalinists and reform communists
Why would the Stalinist solution to the fundamental problems of communism not work?
lacks legitimacy
couldn't win arms race
forced industrialisation only reinforces problems
Why couldn't reform communism resolve the fundamental problems of communism?
Once people have a taste of freedom they only want more.
Liberalising the economy is a move towards capitalism which defeats the purpose of being communist.
Exposure to the west leads to desire for more western society and ideals
What factors led to the final collapse of communism?
(1) External and diplomatic pressures. (2) Internal political and economic weakness. (3) Mass protest from below.
There are now only five states left in the world that claim to be communist. Name them.
China
North Korea
Vietnam
Cuba
Laos
Identify three major reasons for decolonisation in the period after 1945.
(1) Europe had been weakened by two world wars and European populations were losing interest in empire. (2) Both the two superpowers (USA and USSR) were hostile to the old European empires. (3) Nationalist movements in colonised countries had been strengthened by the war.
Indonesia (1945-49), Vietnam (1946-54), Kenya *1952-60), Angola (1961-1970) and Mozambique (1964-74)
lack of infrastructure, ethnic tensions, poverty, weak economies, lack of sense of nationhood, often authoritarian governments
(1) At first Indian nationalism was largely confined to elites, but it gradually became a mass movement. (2) At first its goals were relatively moderate (more self-government and fairer trade relations) but by the 1920s the nationalists wanted full independence. (3) A gradual but increasingly bitter split emerged between the Indian National Congress and the Muslim League
In the 1920's they knew they would eventually have to leave but by slow gradual process. In the 1940's they were not in a mood to negotiate. By 1947 they wanted out as quickly as possible.
What were the three strands in the long process by which India gained independence?
(1) British initiatives to grant more self-government to India, coupled with attempts to negotiate with
Indian leaders. (2) Indian protests against British rule, most of which were non-violent. (3) Rising communal violence between Hindus and MuslimsThe territory of the Raj was partitioned into two states, India and Pakistan. As a result of massive communal violence, millions of Muslims living in India fled to Pakistan, and millions of Hindus and Sikhs living in Pakistan fled to India
Why were the French so reluctant to give up Algeria?
They saw Algeria as a part of France
The Setif Massacre. Parade of Muslims celebrating the end of WWII was fired on by French Army. Waves of reprisals then ensued as both sides descended in to spiral of violence.
When did the FLN begin its insurgency against French rule?
1954
the French were divided about giving up Algeria. sections of the French army were in virtual open
revolt against the government. The crisis was resolved by the appointment of Charles de Gaulle as leader of the French government.What was the outcome of the war in Algeria?
De Gaulle became convinced that France had to withdraw from Algeria. In March 1961 peace talks with the FLN were announced. The French community in Algeria was bitterly opposed to Algerian independence, but was unable to stop it. In July 1962 Algeria was granted independence.
Algeria gained independence but huge massacres ensued. The government has never been stable since.
Characterised by ethnic nationalism e.g muslim vs piednoirs, hindu vs muslim
Both British and French saw these countries as integral to their empires
Both struggles for independence began with elites and then spread to mass movements
Both processes were not moving quickly enough to satisfy the desires of those who wanted independence
Both experienced violence on unarmed citizens as method of control and opposition to uprising.
(1) Both British and French governments at first regarded India/Algeria as vital to national interests: (2) In both colonial India and colonial Algeria, racism was endemic. In both, the bulk of the population was rural and poor: (3) In both, nationalism emerged amongst indigenous elites and only gradually spread to the mass of the population; (4) In both, the nationalist movement became more radical over time, in part in reaction to massacres (Amritsar, Sétif); (5) Both the British and French attempted reforms, but these failed to satisfy the nationalists; (6) In both, the road to independence was complicated by divisions within the population (Pieds-Noirs v Arabs, Muslim League v INC); (7) In both, the struggle for independence unleashed massive communal violence; (8) In both, the struggle for independence was ultimately successful.
Identify at least THREE differences between the struggle for independence in India and Algeria.
Brits were prepared to leave India, French refused to consider it.
Peaceful, unarmed protest was major part of India's struggle, Algeria's was a bloodbath
India;s struggle did not become major problem for Britain itself. Algeria's struggle led to planned military coup in France.
(1) The British arrived much sooner at the realisation that independence was inevitable; (2) The number of British people living in India was tiny, whereas 1m French people lived in Algeria: (3) The role of the British and French armies were very different; (4) Greater willingness of British to negotiate allowed Nehru, Jinnah and Gandhi to play leading role. In Algeria, the intransigence of the French allowed the radical nationalists to take the lead; (5) The INC and Muslim League together probably had more popular support than the FLN; (6) In Algeria, nationalists resorted to armed insurrection. In India, the British and the
nationalists arrived at a negotiated solution; (7) The issue of Algerian independence became a much bigger and more divisive issue in France than the issue of Indian independence in Britain; (8) The worst violence in India followed independence. The worst violence in Algeria preceded independence; (9) India after independence has been a relatively stable democracy. This was not true of AlgeriaWhat was Zionism and how did Zionists attempt to achieve their goals?
Zionism was a Jewish political movement that emerged at the end of the C.19th . Its primary goal was the establishment of a Jewish homeland. There were numerous different political strands within Zionism. The Zionists sought to achieve a Jewish homeland through negotiating with the Great Powers and sponsoring Jewish immigration to Palestine.
When was the state of Israel founded?
1948
Phase #1 (1964 to 1982): Armed struggle waged by the PLO against Israel. Phase #2 (1982-1994): The PLO re-orientated toward a two-state solution through negotiation. Phase #3 (1994 to present): Division between the PLO and Hamas.
