20th Century History
Lecturers cut
Lecturers cut
Why couldn't reform communism resolve the fundamental problems of communism?
Once people have a taste of freedom they only want more.
Liberalising the economy is a move towards capitalism which defeats the purpose of being communist.
Exposure to the west leads to desire for more western society and ideals
What factors led to the final collapse of communism?
(1) External and diplomatic pressures. (2) Internal political and economic weakness. (3) Mass protest from below.
There are now only five states left in the world that claim to be communist. Name them.
China
North Korea
Vietnam
Cuba
Laos
Identify three major reasons for decolonisation in the period after 1945.
(1) Europe had been weakened by two world wars and European populations were losing interest in empire. (2) Both the two superpowers (USA and USSR) were hostile to the old European empires. (3) Nationalist movements in colonised countries had been strengthened by the war.
Indonesia (1945-49), Vietnam (1946-54), Kenya *1952-60), Angola (1961-1970) and Mozambique (1964-74)
lack of infrastructure, ethnic tensions, poverty, weak economies, lack of sense of nationhood, often authoritarian governments
(1) At first Indian nationalism was largely confined to elites, but it gradually became a mass movement. (2) At first its goals were relatively moderate (more self-government and fairer trade relations) but by the 1920s the nationalists wanted full independence. (3) A gradual but increasingly bitter split emerged between the Indian National Congress and the Muslim League
In the 1920's they knew they would eventually have to leave but by slow gradual process. In the 1940's they were not in a mood to negotiate. By 1947 they wanted out as quickly as possible.
What were the three strands in the long process by which India gained independence?
(1) British initiatives to grant more self-government to India, coupled with attempts to negotiate with
Indian leaders. (2) Indian protests against British rule, most of which were non-violent. (3) Rising communal violence between Hindus and MuslimsThe territory of the Raj was partitioned into two states, India and Pakistan. As a result of massive communal violence, millions of Muslims living in India fled to Pakistan, and millions of Hindus and Sikhs living in Pakistan fled to India
Why were the French so reluctant to give up Algeria?
They saw Algeria as a part of France
The Setif Massacre. Parade of Muslims celebrating the end of WWII was fired on by French Army. Waves of reprisals then ensued as both sides descended in to spiral of violence.
When did the FLN begin its insurgency against French rule?
1954
the French were divided about giving up Algeria. sections of the French army were in virtual open
revolt against the government. The crisis was resolved by the appointment of Charles de Gaulle as leader of the French government.What was the outcome of the war in Algeria?
De Gaulle became convinced that France had to withdraw from Algeria. In March 1961 peace talks with the FLN were announced. The French community in Algeria was bitterly opposed to Algerian independence, but was unable to stop it. In July 1962 Algeria was granted independence.
Algeria gained independence but huge massacres ensued. The government has never been stable since.
Characterised by ethnic nationalism e.g muslim vs piednoirs, hindu vs muslim
Both British and French saw these countries as integral to their empires
Both struggles for independence began with elites and then spread to mass movements
Both processes were not moving quickly enough to satisfy the desires of those who wanted independence
Both experienced violence on unarmed citizens as method of control and opposition to uprising.
(1) Both British and French governments at first regarded India/Algeria as vital to national interests: (2) In both colonial India and colonial Algeria, racism was endemic. In both, the bulk of the population was rural and poor: (3) In both, nationalism emerged amongst indigenous elites and only gradually spread to the mass of the population; (4) In both, the nationalist movement became more radical over time, in part in reaction to massacres (Amritsar, Sétif); (5) Both the British and French attempted reforms, but these failed to satisfy the nationalists; (6) In both, the road to independence was complicated by divisions within the population (Pieds-Noirs v Arabs, Muslim League v INC); (7) In both, the struggle for independence unleashed massive communal violence; (8) In both, the struggle for independence was ultimately successful.
Identify at least THREE differences between the struggle for independence in India and Algeria.
Brits were prepared to leave India, French refused to consider it.
Peaceful, unarmed protest was major part of India's struggle, Algeria's was a bloodbath
India;s struggle did not become major problem for Britain itself. Algeria's struggle led to planned military coup in France.
(1) The British arrived much sooner at the realisation that independence was inevitable; (2) The number of British people living in India was tiny, whereas 1m French people lived in Algeria: (3) The role of the British and French armies were very different; (4) Greater willingness of British to negotiate allowed Nehru, Jinnah and Gandhi to play leading role. In Algeria, the intransigence of the French allowed the radical nationalists to take the lead; (5) The INC and Muslim League together probably had more popular support than the FLN; (6) In Algeria, nationalists resorted to armed insurrection. In India, the British and the
nationalists arrived at a negotiated solution; (7) The issue of Algerian independence became a much bigger and more divisive issue in France than the issue of Indian independence in Britain; (8) The worst violence in India followed independence. The worst violence in Algeria preceded independence; (9) India after independence has been a relatively stable democracy. This was not true of AlgeriaWhat was Zionism and how did Zionists attempt to achieve their goals?
Zionism was a Jewish political movement that emerged at the end of the C.19th . Its primary goal was the establishment of a Jewish homeland. There were numerous different political strands within Zionism. The Zionists sought to achieve a Jewish homeland through negotiating with the Great Powers and sponsoring Jewish immigration to Palestine.
When was the state of Israel founded?
1948
Phase #1 (1964 to 1982): Armed struggle waged by the PLO against Israel. Phase #2 (1982-1994): The PLO re-orientated toward a two-state solution through negotiation. Phase #3 (1994 to present): Division between the PLO and Hamas.
Identify at least three important social, economic and or political changes that took place during course of the twentieth century.
World War I
The Treaty of Versailles
World War II
The rise of Communism
The collapse of communism and the fall of the Berlin Wall
The rise of Nationalism
The struggle for independence
The struggle for civil rights
Identify at least three ways in which the twentieth century saw sustained improvements in the overall quality of life.
The collapse of communism - move towards democracy
The struggle for independence - retreat of colonialism
Struggle for civil rights - move towards equality for all people
Identify at least three ways in which the twentieth century impacted negatively on human society.
Nazism - world war II - antisemitism - jewish holocaust
Communism - restriction of personal freedoms, economic strain, global fear (Cold War, East vs West)
Struggle for independence and nationalism - Algeria, Israel/ palestine - bloodshed on huge scale
Name the countries including those that are not numbered
1.Ireland
2.Britain
3.France
4.Portugal
5.Spain
6.Switzerland
7.Germany
8.Italy
9.Serbia
10.Austria-Hungary
11.Greece
12.Bulgaria
13.Romania
14.Russia
15.Turkey
16.Ottoman Empire
Unamed clockwise
1. Belgium
2.Holland
3.Denmark
4.Norway
5.Sweden
6.Albania
By what kinds of governments were pre WWI European states governed?
Parliamentary republics (France)
Constitutional Monarchies (Great Britain, Italy, Serbia)
Semi-autocracies (Germany, Austria-Hungary)
Autocracies (Russia)
Why did growing Nationalism before WWI lead to tensions both between and within states?
Because of ethnic rivalries between minorities. There was tension between states over proper borders - ownership and control of areas.
Which were the 4 main industrial powers in pre-war WWI Europe? Whic of these two were well established industrial powers and which two were rapidly industralising?
Germany, Britain, France, Russia
Britain and France
Germany and Russia
Which European country was experiencing the most rapid urbanisation prior to WWI?
Germany
What was happening to population numbers in pre WWI Britain, France and Germany?
In Britain and France the population growth had slowed. In Germany the population was experiencing radical, phenomenal growth.
In all populations there was a migration of population from rural areas to cities.
What radical political movements emerged before WWI to challenge the status quo within European states?
Marxist movements e.g. German Social Democratic Party (SDP) - seeks to destroy capitalism - biggest socialist party in world
Populist radical right wing - hostlie, nationalistic. Authoritarian, anti semitic, racist - social darwinism. Building blocks of fascism, nazism.
Minority Nationalism - e.g. Sinn Fein (Ireland) and various parties in Eastern Europe (e.g. Polish socialists, Young Czech party etc)
Which three countries made up the 'triple entente'?
Italy, Austria-Hungary, Germany
Which three countries made up the Central Powers?
Russia, France, Britain
What event triggered the European Alliance systems, leading to the July Crisis and the outbreak of war in August 1914?
The assasination of Arch-Duke Franz Ferdinand and his wife in Sarajevo (heir to the throne of the Austria-Hungarian Empire)
Identify at least three different schools of interpretation that attempt to explain why war broke out in August 1914.
1. German Imperialism- Germany had a premeditated plan for European domination. Domestic politics deeply troubled - massive aggrieved working class looking to marxism/ socialism/ radical parties, questions of identity (saxon? Prussian?Bavarian?), Religious tension between protestants and catholics. Plan was to unite all Germans in common goal of foreign expansion (WAR) to solve domestic problems.
2.German geo-political vulnerability. Their rivals together were more powerful than them. They were falling behind in the arms race. They needed to defend themselves.
3. Military factors - The germans declared a pre-emptive war because they were falling behind in the arms race. The Schlieffen plan was intended to quickly overcome France quickly and transport Germans across Europe to meet the threat of Russians. Didn't work.
Which countries fought on the side of the allies in WWI?
Great Britain
France
Russia
Serbia
Italy (from 1915)
USA
Portugal
Romania
Greece
Which countries fought on the side of the central powers in WWI?
Germany
Austria-Hungary
Turkey
Bulgaria
Why were the central powers at a disadvantage from the very beginning of WWI?
They had less resources at their disposal - less population, army, ships. Could not sustain a long war
What were the five great gambles of the germans to find a shortcut to victoy in WWI?
1. The Schlieffen plan - invade France via Belgium with a plan to then attack Russia before they could mobilise. French fought hard. Plan failed.
2. The German Offensive on the Eastern Front 1915
Concentrate main efforts in East to attack Russia (reverse Schlieffen Plan to east) - idea was to knock Russia out of the war whilst holding the western front. Not enough troops, supplies etc. Plan Fails
3. Battle of Verdun 1916 - Attack French at Verdun on the front line, bleed them to death and weaken France to force them out of the war. France fights hard for verdun for political reasons - plan fails but total bloodbath.
4. Unrestricted submarine warfare 1917 - German plan to starve Britain and France by cutting supplies from USA. use of U-Boat to sink subs - famous sinking of Lusitania. convoys & new technologies reduces sinkings Fails and USA enter war April 1917
5. March - July 1918- Massive push to win western front before arrival of americans. Transfer majority of army from east to west, throw everything they've got at it. Stave civilians to care for troops etc but run out of steam due to supply problems and exhaustion. Plan fails
Why was it so difficult for either side to achieve decisive military victories on the battlefield in WWI?
The impact of military technology
1. Kill Zone
2. Armour and protection
3. Mobility
4. Supply
Trench warfare
Medical advances = less deaths and able to remobilise soldiers.
Identify some of the technical innovations that took place during WWI that made it possible for armies to fight the war more effectively
Tactics:
Preliminary bombardment
Counter Battery fire - locate enemy artillery and destroy it
Creeping barrage - force enemy in to dugout so you can cross no-mans land
bite and hold - creeping barrage in chunks
Tanks
Multiple exploratory attacks - groups of roughly 30 men with many diff types of weapons, use terrain to get across no mans land
medical advances
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Flashcards
Identify at least FIVE successful strategies used by the Nazis in their pursuit of power in the late 1920s and early 1930s
Fear of communism
Nationalist resentment (treaty of versailles)
The Hitler Myth (cult devotion)
Catch-all programs (mixed messages to appeal to many audiences)
Effective propaganda in the form of mass rallies and spectacles
Political violence - soldiers drive out all opposing parties
Successful courting of elites
What according to Ian Kershaw is the difference between Resistance, opposition and dissent?
Resistance - complete overthrow of everything a regime stands for.
Opposition - obstruction, not complete overthrow
Dissent - non political non conformity. Lifestyle choices for non political reasons.
How did the German Communist Party (KPD) resist the Nazis and with what degree of success?
Fought back on the streets before going underground. Maintained an underground party but were infiltrated by the Gestapo. They suffered terribly. 180,000 (of 400,000) in concentration camp, 30,000 died. Dissolved in to small friendship circles - more difficult to inflitrate. Keep party alive.
How did the Jehovah's witnesses resist Nazi power?
continuing to witness first overtly and then covertly
refusal to give nazi salute, to hang flags and participate in ceremonies
Refusal to take up arms.
What was the Nazis predominant means of control
They tried to abolish all borders between the private and the public. They wanted to control every part of the lives of German citizens
How did some churches, especially the 'confessing church' and the catholic church, oppose the nazis?
They (sometimes) opposed Nazi encroachment in the sphere of religion, they criticised specific policies e.g. Nazi neo-paganism, euthanasia and (some) racial policies, and occasionally they openly protested to defend their religious autonomy against the pro-Nazi ‘German Christians’
How successful was the nazi campaign to undermine Christianity in Germany?
It was not successful. Many Christians offered refuge to jews, refused to deviate from their faith, refused to Nazify their faith. Even though many ended up in concentration camps the churches were more popular than ever in 1945.
what were the main strands of Nazi policy towards German women?
Raise birth rates
Change women's behaviour - place of women = in the home.
Did this by offering money for having babies, marriage loans. Lebensborn - financial assistance for racially pure pregnant single women. Also by redundancies of women from workforce, campaigns to change their personal habits e.g. smoking or fashion. Sterilization of racially unacceptable women
How successful were Nazi policies to women?
Birthrates increased but so did economic circumstances so the increase may not be as a result of nazi efforts. The workforce continued to expand and women were still involved. In 1940's birthrate declined once again. Women did not stop smoking, wearing makeup and fashionable clothes.
Why were the appeasers (above all Neville Chamberlain) accused of being "guilty men"?
They were accused of failing to take opportunities to stop Hitler. Tried to do business with dictators but compromising only encouraged further demands. Sabotaged the possibility of creating anti-hitler coalition. FAiled to prepare Britain for war. Continued to pursue appeasement even when it was failing.
What was the name of the main fascist movement in Hungary and what happened to it?
The Arrow Cross. Virulently sexist, hostile, pathologically anti-semitic. Closely aligned to the Nazis. Towards end of WWII Germans invaded Hungary, gave permission for arrow cross to seize power in Hungary and cleanse Hungary of Jews. Eventually removed from power with arrival of Red Army in Budapest 1945.
What was NOT a major factor in the Nazis rise to power?
Anti-semitism
What according to Kershaw is the difference between resistance, opposition and dissent?
Resistance: Purpose is overthrow
Opposition: sabotage or obstruct
Dissent: Non conformity
How did the German Communist Party (KPD) resist the Nazis and with what degree of success?
At first the KPD fought the Nazis on the streets. Thereafter the KPD maintained a national underground resistance network. By 1935 this had been smashed by the Gestapo. However, the Nazis were never able to destroy the small ‘circles of friends’ which survived until 1945. After the war, the KPD revived very rapidly
How did the Jehovah's Witnesses resist Nazi Power?
Refusal to renounce faith even in concentration camps
Continuing to witness
Refusing to participate in Hitler salute and other ceremonies.
Refused to participate in military service
Give five examples of events and crises where the appeasers failed to take a firm stand against the Nazis
Building up arms - especially navy and airforce luftwaffe
Remilitarisation of the Rhineland 1936
Spanish civil war - occured with support from hitler and mussolini and British didn't intervene - responded with arms boycott which was futile 1936 - 1939
Anschluss - reunification with Austria even though prohibited under treaty of versailles 1938
Sudetenland - taking territory from Czechoslovakia unchallenged 1938
The Nazi invasion of which country in September 1939 finally provoked Britain and France to declare war on Germany?
Poland
What arguments are made by historians who defend the appeasers?
Britain was exhausted and ill prepared for another war
it did not have strong allies it could count on
there was no national appetite for war
there was no precedent on dealing with a leader such as Hitler
Which countries fought on the side of the Germans in WWII?
Italy
Japan
Finland
Hungary
Romania
Which countries fought on the side of Britain and Empire in WWII?
USA
France
Australia
NZ
Russia
Italy
Which countries were invaded by the Nazis between 1939 - 1941?
1939: Poland. 1940: Denmark, Norway, Belgium, Netherlands, France. 1941: Yugoslavia, Greece, USSR.
Identify three main goal of the communist government in Russia/ USSR between 1917 - 1953
Abolish all competition (other political parties)
Win the support of the people
Change the role and status of women (abolish subjugation)
Improve education and culture
stamp out christianity
Modernise the economy and agriculture through collectivism etc.
What were the main forms of resistance to communist rule in Russia and the USSR between 1917 - 1953
Civil war - armed resistance
Unarmed resistance such as strikes, protests, peasants destroying equipment, livestock, de-collectivising farms
What was the cold war?
Superpower rivals USSR and USA fight a war by proxy. Characterised by espionage and continual tension. Fear of Nuclear war.
in 1949 two rival German States were created. What were they called?
Federal Republic of Germany (FRG) - Pro USA and WEST
German Democratic Republic (GDR) - Pro Soviets and Communist
What 3 major international crises occured during the presidency of John F Kennedy?
Bay of Pigs - bungled CIA attempt to overthrow castro with infiltrators.
Cuban Missile Crisis - castro has missiles in place. Diplomacy between Kennedy and Krushchev and some good fortune and mix ups with media = crisis averted. USA agree not to attack cuba and USA agree to remove missiles from Turkey.
Second berlin crisis - soviets vs US (east vs west germany) at Checkpoint Charlie. Communist east fear they are losing power, losing people to west - standoff as east demands that west pulls out. Result in building of Berlin Wall.
Vietnam War beginning - communist north attacking non communist south
According to the Soviet Communist interpretation, who started the cold war?
THE USA (imperialism)
According to the traditional western interpretation, who started the cold war?
The Soviets
According to revisionists who started the cold war?
The soviets took aggressive measures to maintain their sphere of influence however bad American diplomacy is ultimately to blame
According to post-revisionists who started the cold war?
A plague on both your houses! Both sides are equally to blame.
What major change has occured in Cold war scholarship since the 1990's
The belief that small players may have been involved and had influence. That it is not a bi-polar debate.
Identify at least 10 countries that by 1979 had communist governments
Russia
China
Cuba
North Korea
Guatemala
Yugoslavia
East Germany
Congo
Vietnam
Mongolia
Laos
In what way did the expansion of communism fail to match marx's prediction of how communist revolution would come about?
He said it would come at the end of capitalism. This is not the case for most communist countries.
By what four methods did communist regimes come to power?
Revolution
(e.g. Russia, Cuba, China)
Coup
(e.g. Afghanistan, Grenada)
Red Army
(e.g. Poland, Czechoslovakia, Romania)
Nationalist Struggles
(e.g. Vietnam)
In which countries was the seizure of power by communists followed by a civil war?
Russia (1918-21), Ethiopia (1974-91), Angola (1975-2002), Mozambique (1977-91), Afghanistan (1978-92)
In what ways did communists states vary?
Living Standards, personal freedoms (oppressiveness), popularity
Give three examples of how communist regimes usually aimed to transform society
Education
Modernisation
Eliminate political opposition
What were the main mechanisms of communist rule?
Propaganda (think Mao, Stalin, Mussolini poems and titles)
Single Party rule
Secret police e.g. Stasi, securitatae, Cheka etc.
identify some examples of splits that occured in the communist world?
Neo-stalinists vs reformists.
Neo stalinists wanted a return to stalinism - more oppression, work population harder
Reformists - less oppression, more freedoms for people, better relations with west.
1948: The break between Stalin and Tito’s Yugoslavia. 1956: Poland and the USSR come to the brink of war. 1961: The Sino-Soviet split. 1968: Romania denounced the invasion of Czechoslovakia by the Warsaw Pact.Identify four main ways in which the west responded to the expansion of communism
Sometimes the West did nothing. Sometimes the West imposed sanctions. Sometimes the West sponsored local anti-Communist forces. On three occasions the West intervened militarily (Korea, Vietnam, Grenada).
