20th Century History
Lecturers cut
Lecturers cut
Why couldn't reform communism resolve the fundamental problems of communism?
Once people have a taste of freedom they only want more.
Liberalising the economy is a move towards capitalism which defeats the purpose of being communist.
Exposure to the west leads to desire for more western society and ideals
What factors led to the final collapse of communism?
(1) External and diplomatic pressures. (2) Internal political and economic weakness. (3) Mass protest from below.
There are now only five states left in the world that claim to be communist. Name them.
China
North Korea
Vietnam
Cuba
Laos
Identify three major reasons for decolonisation in the period after 1945.
(1) Europe had been weakened by two world wars and European populations were losing interest in empire. (2) Both the two superpowers (USA and USSR) were hostile to the old European empires. (3) Nationalist movements in colonised countries had been strengthened by the war.
Indonesia (1945-49), Vietnam (1946-54), Kenya *1952-60), Angola (1961-1970) and Mozambique (1964-74)
lack of infrastructure, ethnic tensions, poverty, weak economies, lack of sense of nationhood, often authoritarian governments
(1) At first Indian nationalism was largely confined to elites, but it gradually became a mass movement. (2) At first its goals were relatively moderate (more self-government and fairer trade relations) but by the 1920s the nationalists wanted full independence. (3) A gradual but increasingly bitter split emerged between the Indian National Congress and the Muslim League
In the 1920's they knew they would eventually have to leave but by slow gradual process. In the 1940's they were not in a mood to negotiate. By 1947 they wanted out as quickly as possible.
What were the three strands in the long process by which India gained independence?
(1) British initiatives to grant more self-government to India, coupled with attempts to negotiate with
Indian leaders. (2) Indian protests against British rule, most of which were non-violent. (3) Rising communal violence between Hindus and MuslimsThe territory of the Raj was partitioned into two states, India and Pakistan. As a result of massive communal violence, millions of Muslims living in India fled to Pakistan, and millions of Hindus and Sikhs living in Pakistan fled to India
Why were the French so reluctant to give up Algeria?
They saw Algeria as a part of France
The Setif Massacre. Parade of Muslims celebrating the end of WWII was fired on by French Army. Waves of reprisals then ensued as both sides descended in to spiral of violence.
When did the FLN begin its insurgency against French rule?
1954
the French were divided about giving up Algeria. sections of the French army were in virtual open
revolt against the government. The crisis was resolved by the appointment of Charles de Gaulle as leader of the French government.What was the outcome of the war in Algeria?
De Gaulle became convinced that France had to withdraw from Algeria. In March 1961 peace talks with the FLN were announced. The French community in Algeria was bitterly opposed to Algerian independence, but was unable to stop it. In July 1962 Algeria was granted independence.
Algeria gained independence but huge massacres ensued. The government has never been stable since.
Characterised by ethnic nationalism e.g muslim vs piednoirs, hindu vs muslim
Both British and French saw these countries as integral to their empires
Both struggles for independence began with elites and then spread to mass movements
Both processes were not moving quickly enough to satisfy the desires of those who wanted independence
Both experienced violence on unarmed citizens as method of control and opposition to uprising.
(1) Both British and French governments at first regarded India/Algeria as vital to national interests: (2) In both colonial India and colonial Algeria, racism was endemic. In both, the bulk of the population was rural and poor: (3) In both, nationalism emerged amongst indigenous elites and only gradually spread to the mass of the population; (4) In both, the nationalist movement became more radical over time, in part in reaction to massacres (Amritsar, Sétif); (5) Both the British and French attempted reforms, but these failed to satisfy the nationalists; (6) In both, the road to independence was complicated by divisions within the population (Pieds-Noirs v Arabs, Muslim League v INC); (7) In both, the struggle for independence unleashed massive communal violence; (8) In both, the struggle for independence was ultimately successful.
Identify at least THREE differences between the struggle for independence in India and Algeria.
Brits were prepared to leave India, French refused to consider it.
Peaceful, unarmed protest was major part of India's struggle, Algeria's was a bloodbath
India;s struggle did not become major problem for Britain itself. Algeria's struggle led to planned military coup in France.
(1) The British arrived much sooner at the realisation that independence was inevitable; (2) The number of British people living in India was tiny, whereas 1m French people lived in Algeria: (3) The role of the British and French armies were very different; (4) Greater willingness of British to negotiate allowed Nehru, Jinnah and Gandhi to play leading role. In Algeria, the intransigence of the French allowed the radical nationalists to take the lead; (5) The INC and Muslim League together probably had more popular support than the FLN; (6) In Algeria, nationalists resorted to armed insurrection. In India, the British and the
nationalists arrived at a negotiated solution; (7) The issue of Algerian independence became a much bigger and more divisive issue in France than the issue of Indian independence in Britain; (8) The worst violence in India followed independence. The worst violence in Algeria preceded independence; (9) India after independence has been a relatively stable democracy. This was not true of AlgeriaWhat was Zionism and how did Zionists attempt to achieve their goals?
Zionism was a Jewish political movement that emerged at the end of the C.19th . Its primary goal was the establishment of a Jewish homeland. There were numerous different political strands within Zionism. The Zionists sought to achieve a Jewish homeland through negotiating with the Great Powers and sponsoring Jewish immigration to Palestine.
When was the state of Israel founded?
1948
Phase #1 (1964 to 1982): Armed struggle waged by the PLO against Israel. Phase #2 (1982-1994): The PLO re-orientated toward a two-state solution through negotiation. Phase #3 (1994 to present): Division between the PLO and Hamas.
Identify at least three important social, economic and or political changes that took place during course of the twentieth century.
World War I
The Treaty of Versailles
World War II
The rise of Communism
The collapse of communism and the fall of the Berlin Wall
The rise of Nationalism
The struggle for independence
The struggle for civil rights
Identify at least three ways in which the twentieth century saw sustained improvements in the overall quality of life.
The collapse of communism - move towards democracy
The struggle for independence - retreat of colonialism
Struggle for civil rights - move towards equality for all people
Identify at least three ways in which the twentieth century impacted negatively on human society.
Nazism - world war II - antisemitism - jewish holocaust
Communism - restriction of personal freedoms, economic strain, global fear (Cold War, East vs West)
Struggle for independence and nationalism - Algeria, Israel/ palestine - bloodshed on huge scale
Name the countries including those that are not numbered
1.Ireland
2.Britain
3.France
4.Portugal
5.Spain
6.Switzerland
7.Germany
8.Italy
9.Serbia
10.Austria-Hungary
11.Greece
12.Bulgaria
13.Romania
14.Russia
15.Turkey
16.Ottoman Empire
Unamed clockwise
1. Belgium
2.Holland
3.Denmark
4.Norway
5.Sweden
6.Albania
By what kinds of governments were pre WWI European states governed?
Parliamentary republics (France)
Constitutional Monarchies (Great Britain, Italy, Serbia)
Semi-autocracies (Germany, Austria-Hungary)
Autocracies (Russia)
Why did growing Nationalism before WWI lead to tensions both between and within states?
Because of ethnic rivalries between minorities. There was tension between states over proper borders - ownership and control of areas.
Which were the 4 main industrial powers in pre-war WWI Europe? Whic of these two were well established industrial powers and which two were rapidly industralising?
Germany, Britain, France, Russia
Britain and France
Germany and Russia
Which European country was experiencing the most rapid urbanisation prior to WWI?
Germany
What was happening to population numbers in pre WWI Britain, France and Germany?
In Britain and France the population growth had slowed. In Germany the population was experiencing radical, phenomenal growth.
In all populations there was a migration of population from rural areas to cities.
What radical political movements emerged before WWI to challenge the status quo within European states?
Marxist movements e.g. German Social Democratic Party (SDP) - seeks to destroy capitalism - biggest socialist party in world
Populist radical right wing - hostlie, nationalistic. Authoritarian, anti semitic, racist - social darwinism. Building blocks of fascism, nazism.
Minority Nationalism - e.g. Sinn Fein (Ireland) and various parties in Eastern Europe (e.g. Polish socialists, Young Czech party etc)
Which three countries made up the 'triple entente'?
Italy, Austria-Hungary, Germany
Which three countries made up the Central Powers?
Russia, France, Britain
What event triggered the European Alliance systems, leading to the July Crisis and the outbreak of war in August 1914?
The assasination of Arch-Duke Franz Ferdinand and his wife in Sarajevo (heir to the throne of the Austria-Hungarian Empire)
Identify at least three different schools of interpretation that attempt to explain why war broke out in August 1914.
1. German Imperialism- Germany had a premeditated plan for European domination. Domestic politics deeply troubled - massive aggrieved working class looking to marxism/ socialism/ radical parties, questions of identity (saxon? Prussian?Bavarian?), Religious tension between protestants and catholics. Plan was to unite all Germans in common goal of foreign expansion (WAR) to solve domestic problems.
2.German geo-political vulnerability. Their rivals together were more powerful than them. They were falling behind in the arms race. They needed to defend themselves.
3. Military factors - The germans declared a pre-emptive war because they were falling behind in the arms race. The Schlieffen plan was intended to quickly overcome France quickly and transport Germans across Europe to meet the threat of Russians. Didn't work.
Which countries fought on the side of the allies in WWI?
Great Britain
France
Russia
Serbia
Italy (from 1915)
USA
Portugal
Romania
Greece
Which countries fought on the side of the central powers in WWI?
Germany
Austria-Hungary
Turkey
Bulgaria
Why were the central powers at a disadvantage from the very beginning of WWI?
They had less resources at their disposal - less population, army, ships. Could not sustain a long war
What were the five great gambles of the germans to find a shortcut to victoy in WWI?
1. The Schlieffen plan - invade France via Belgium with a plan to then attack Russia before they could mobilise. French fought hard. Plan failed.
2. The German Offensive on the Eastern Front 1915
Concentrate main efforts in East to attack Russia (reverse Schlieffen Plan to east) - idea was to knock Russia out of the war whilst holding the western front. Not enough troops, supplies etc. Plan Fails
3. Battle of Verdun 1916 - Attack French at Verdun on the front line, bleed them to death and weaken France to force them out of the war. France fights hard for verdun for political reasons - plan fails but total bloodbath.
4. Unrestricted submarine warfare 1917 - German plan to starve Britain and France by cutting supplies from USA. use of U-Boat to sink subs - famous sinking of Lusitania. convoys & new technologies reduces sinkings Fails and USA enter war April 1917
5. March - July 1918- Massive push to win western front before arrival of americans. Transfer majority of army from east to west, throw everything they've got at it. Stave civilians to care for troops etc but run out of steam due to supply problems and exhaustion. Plan fails
Why was it so difficult for either side to achieve decisive military victories on the battlefield in WWI?
The impact of military technology
1. Kill Zone
2. Armour and protection
3. Mobility
4. Supply
Trench warfare
Medical advances = less deaths and able to remobilise soldiers.
Identify some of the technical innovations that took place during WWI that made it possible for armies to fight the war more effectively
Tactics:
Preliminary bombardment
Counter Battery fire - locate enemy artillery and destroy it
Creeping barrage - force enemy in to dugout so you can cross no-mans land
bite and hold - creeping barrage in chunks
Tanks
Multiple exploratory attacks - groups of roughly 30 men with many diff types of weapons, use terrain to get across no mans land
medical advances
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Flashcards
Identify at least three important social, economic and or political changes that took place during course of the twentieth century.
World War I
The Treaty of Versailles
World War II
The rise of Communism
The collapse of communism and the fall of the Berlin Wall
The rise of Nationalism
The struggle for independence
The struggle for civil rights
Identify at least three ways in which the twentieth century saw sustained improvements in the overall quality of life.
The collapse of communism - move towards democracy
The struggle for independence - retreat of colonialism
Struggle for civil rights - move towards equality for all people
Identify at least three ways in which the twentieth century impacted negatively on human society.
Nazism - world war II - antisemitism - jewish holocaust
Communism - restriction of personal freedoms, economic strain, global fear (Cold War, East vs West)
Struggle for independence and nationalism - Algeria, Israel/ palestine - bloodshed on huge scale
Name the countries including those that are not numbered
1.Ireland
2.Britain
3.France
4.Portugal
5.Spain
6.Switzerland
7.Germany
8.Italy
9.Serbia
10.Austria-Hungary
11.Greece
12.Bulgaria
13.Romania
14.Russia
15.Turkey
16.Ottoman Empire
Unamed clockwise
1. Belgium
2.Holland
3.Denmark
4.Norway
5.Sweden
6.Albania
By what kinds of governments were pre WWI European states governed?
Parliamentary republics (France)
Constitutional Monarchies (Great Britain, Italy, Serbia)
Semi-autocracies (Germany, Austria-Hungary)
Autocracies (Russia)
Why did growing Nationalism before WWI lead to tensions both between and within states?
Because of ethnic rivalries between minorities. There was tension between states over proper borders - ownership and control of areas.
Which were the 4 main industrial powers in pre-war WWI Europe? Whic of these two were well established industrial powers and which two were rapidly industralising?
Germany, Britain, France, Russia
Britain and France
Germany and Russia
Which European country was experiencing the most rapid urbanisation prior to WWI?
Germany
What was happening to population numbers in pre WWI Britain, France and Germany?
In Britain and France the population growth had slowed. In Germany the population was experiencing radical, phenomenal growth.
In all populations there was a migration of population from rural areas to cities.
What radical political movements emerged before WWI to challenge the status quo within European states?
Marxist movements e.g. German Social Democratic Party (SDP) - seeks to destroy capitalism - biggest socialist party in world
Populist radical right wing - hostlie, nationalistic. Authoritarian, anti semitic, racist - social darwinism. Building blocks of fascism, nazism.
Minority Nationalism - e.g. Sinn Fein (Ireland) and various parties in Eastern Europe (e.g. Polish socialists, Young Czech party etc)
Which three countries made up the 'triple entente'?
Italy, Austria-Hungary, Germany
Which three countries made up the Central Powers?
Russia, France, Britain
What event triggered the European Alliance systems, leading to the July Crisis and the outbreak of war in August 1914?
The assasination of Arch-Duke Franz Ferdinand and his wife in Sarajevo (heir to the throne of the Austria-Hungarian Empire)
Identify at least three different schools of interpretation that attempt to explain why war broke out in August 1914.
1. German Imperialism- Germany had a premeditated plan for European domination. Domestic politics deeply troubled - massive aggrieved working class looking to marxism/ socialism/ radical parties, questions of identity (saxon? Prussian?Bavarian?), Religious tension between protestants and catholics. Plan was to unite all Germans in common goal of foreign expansion (WAR) to solve domestic problems.
2.German geo-political vulnerability. Their rivals together were more powerful than them. They were falling behind in the arms race. They needed to defend themselves.
3. Military factors - The germans declared a pre-emptive war because they were falling behind in the arms race. The Schlieffen plan was intended to quickly overcome France quickly and transport Germans across Europe to meet the threat of Russians. Didn't work.
Which countries fought on the side of the allies in WWI?
Great Britain
France
Russia
Serbia
Italy (from 1915)
USA
Portugal
Romania
Greece
Which countries fought on the side of the central powers in WWI?
Germany
Austria-Hungary
Turkey
Bulgaria
Why were the central powers at a disadvantage from the very beginning of WWI?
They had less resources at their disposal - less population, army, ships. Could not sustain a long war
What were the five great gambles of the germans to find a shortcut to victoy in WWI?
1. The Schlieffen plan - invade France via Belgium with a plan to then attack Russia before they could mobilise. French fought hard. Plan failed.
2. The German Offensive on the Eastern Front 1915
Concentrate main efforts in East to attack Russia (reverse Schlieffen Plan to east) - idea was to knock Russia out of the war whilst holding the western front. Not enough troops, supplies etc. Plan Fails
3. Battle of Verdun 1916 - Attack French at Verdun on the front line, bleed them to death and weaken France to force them out of the war. France fights hard for verdun for political reasons - plan fails but total bloodbath.
4. Unrestricted submarine warfare 1917 - German plan to starve Britain and France by cutting supplies from USA. use of U-Boat to sink subs - famous sinking of Lusitania. convoys & new technologies reduces sinkings Fails and USA enter war April 1917
5. March - July 1918- Massive push to win western front before arrival of americans. Transfer majority of army from east to west, throw everything they've got at it. Stave civilians to care for troops etc but run out of steam due to supply problems and exhaustion. Plan fails
Why was it so difficult for either side to achieve decisive military victories on the battlefield in WWI?
The impact of military technology
1. Kill Zone
2. Armour and protection
3. Mobility
4. Supply
Trench warfare
Medical advances = less deaths and able to remobilise soldiers.
Identify some of the technical innovations that took place during WWI that made it possible for armies to fight the war more effectively
Tactics:
Preliminary bombardment
Counter Battery fire - locate enemy artillery and destroy it
Creeping barrage - force enemy in to dugout so you can cross no-mans land
bite and hold - creeping barrage in chunks
Tanks
Multiple exploratory attacks - groups of roughly 30 men with many diff types of weapons, use terrain to get across no mans land
medical advances
What were the One Hundred Days of 1918?
The Hundred Days Offensive was a series of offensives launched by the Allied and Associated Powers toward the end of World War I.
Commencing with the Battle of Amiens 8 August, the Hundred Days Offensive ended with the signing of the armistice on November 11, 1918.
The germans did not surrender, 11,000 casualties in last 24 hours. Simply agreed to stop fighting.
How did the war impact on the relationship between governments and the economy in the belligerant states?
Russia and Austria-Hungary - inefficient economic mobilisation. Germany - mobilisation rapid but flawed. taxes on goods led to inflation. Indirect taxes weighed heavily on poorest sections of population as everyone had to pay the same whether rich or poor. Thought they would be able to wage a war as "business as usual" but became a TOTAL WAR of whole economies, societies and resources.
Why were the allies able to outproduce the central powers in WWI?
1. The central powers had less available resources such as coal, iron, steel etc
2. Blockade - Germany was not able to import food. (The Turnip winter, 700,000 dead)
3. Less efficient mobilisation
What impact did the war have on industrial relations?
there was a shortage of men working in agriculture as they had all gone in to the army. Fertiliser etc not produced as everything used for making munitions
War united the unions and employers - a truce between capital and labour - public enthusiasm for solidarity.
Which four empires disintegrated at the end of WWI?
Austria-Hungary
Ottoman
Russian
German
In what ways (according to some) did WWI constitute a step forward for female equality?
More women in workforce - nurses, ambulance drivers etc
Loosening of social constraints
changes to clothing e.g. corsets to bras - less metal!
Women can vote after war
More promiscuity!
Why (according to some) was the progress made by women as a result of WWI more apparent than real
Many of the women were already working before the war
After the war women were required to revert back to old expectations (Nazism, Fascism)
Women were given unskilled work under mens supervision
Work given to women often dirty and dangerous.
Women only drive to work through economic need.
Who were the big three at the Paris peace conference in 1919?
David Lloyd-George (Britain)
Woodrow Wilson (USA)
Georges Clemenceau (France)
What were the two main tasks of the Paris peace conference?
Draw up peace treaties with defeated states
Redraw map of territories and decide fate of former German colonies
How were the Germans Punished by the treaty of Versailles?
Reparations
Disarmament
Loss of territory
War Guilt clause
Prohibition on joining with Austria
What are the main arguments of historians who are hostile to the Treaty of Versailles?
war guilt was unfair
created resentment on part of Germans
Undermined Germany democracy
Reparations were too harsh - undermined german economy
Did not resolve German problem
What are the main arguments of historians who deny that the Treaty of Versailles led to World War II?
The reparations were not as harsh as they seemed - trick of accounting
The Germans only paid 1/8 of the reparations and Britain/ France/ USA did not enforce payment
Most reparations were paid through foreign loans
Debt was cleared as a result of Great Depression
Reparations no longer significant when Nazis came to power.
Why did Wilson's principle of National Self-determination cause so many problems in East-Central europe? (border should reflect the wishes of the people)
The region was so ethnically mixed, it didn't matter where the borders were drawn you would always have people left on the wrong side of the border. This leaves ethnic minorities stuck in places where they do not feel they belong. Leads to tensions and border disputes.
Why was the League of Nations flawed from the beginning?
It had no real power, it was Wilson's idea but the USA never joined. Russia and Germany were excluded.
During the inter-war period, what three great challenges confronted the post war order that was constructed at Paris in 1919?
1. Economic Upheaval - Legacy of WWI - all countries struggling financially, poor industrial relations as employers cut wages and structural changes in world economy (switch from coal to oil for example)
2. Political extremism - Community in hunger & despair- gravitation to left or right of politics
3. International conflicts - Many internationally dissatisfied with new world order and want to revise in their own interest - e.g. Russia, Italy (Mussolini), Hitler, Japan
Identify some of the common features of interwar fascist movements in Europe.
Hostile
Authoritarian
Nationalistic and xenophobic
Anti-marxist and anti-socialist - all about state power
Anti-semitic
Militant
sexist
violent
obessessed with technology and modernity
what was the main social constituency of fascist movements?
The middle classes - NSDAP - National Socialist German Workers Party
What was the name of the main fascist movement in Romania and what happened to it?
The Iron Guard.
General Antonescu forges military dictatorship. Used the army to crush the Iron Guard in 1941 (with permission of Germans) because he realised it was a threat to public order.
What was the name of the main fascist movement in Italy and how did it come to power?
The Blackshirts
Gradual rise to power...Fascism was used as a method of nation building by Mussolini. Italy had suffered from weak, unstable government, nationalist grievances and massive labour unrest. Fascism was the solution.
Mussolini uses blackshirts to rise to dictatorial power.
Identify the three stages by which the Nazis came to power in Germany.
1919 - 1923 - Hitler joins the German Workers Party. Nazi party is explicitly revolutionary and rejects democracy
1923 - 1932 - Nazi party attempts a coup for which Hitler is jailed. During this time he writes Mein Kampf. Begins to use democratic processes (vote) to gain power.
1932 - 1933 - Counting on public fear of communism. Only way to gain stable government is through Hitler at the helm.
