Biochemie
Bio
Bio
Classification of influenza viruses
- Hemagglutinin (H) and Neuraminidase (N) are specific to influenza viruses.
- Hemagglutinin (H):
- Binds to host cell receptors
- Initiates viral entry
- Neuraminidase (N):
- Cleaves sialic acid on host cell surface
- Allows new viruses to exit infected cells and spread
Both crucial for influenza life cycle.
- Basis for influenza classification, e.g., H1N1, H3N2.
- number is type of N and H
- there are other minor surface proteins but they arent as important so arent part of viral classification / nomenclature
Surface protein
- Protein located on the outer layer of a cell or virus.
- Involved in interactions with the environment or other cells.
Key roles:
- Attachment / entrance / infection
- Signal reception
- Immune response evasion
In bith capsulated and uncapsulated viruses
Pump vs Transporter vs Passive diffusion
- Pump uses ATP
- Transporter (active or passive) no ATP
uniporter
symporter
antiporter
- passive diffusion: not saturable like other two but verry slow
eg. glucose uptake in intestine is through Na/glucose symporter on apikal side and throguh glucose uniporter on basal side
GABA A
GABA A:
pentameric, 2x alpha, 2x beta, gamma
α2-GABAA receptor means at least one of its alpha subunits is alpha 2
α1-GABAA receptors: sedation, motor-dyscoordination
α2-GABAA receptors: analgesia, anxiolysis, muscle relaxation
α3-GABAA receptors: analgesia, muscle relaxation, motor-dyscoordination
α5-GABAA receptors: analgesia, cognitive impairment
Orthosteric vs Allosteric ligand
Orthosteric: primary (endogenous) binding site of the receptor.
- can be an agonist or antagonist
Allosteric: not endogenous binding site
Agonist types
All influence the activity of a receptor. (Activity is defined as the response in a biological assey of the effect of the receptor)
Full agonist (efficacy at 1 at max concentration)
Superagonist (efficacy over endogenous ligand, requires that endogenous ligand has efficacy under 1)
Partial agonist (efficacy under 1 at max concentration)
(=partial antagonist)
Co-agonists (multiple ligands necessary for biological response)
Inverse agonist (lowers activity compared to unbound state)
Efficacy (max value on y axis) compared to native ligand
Antagonists
Block receptor and dont have effect on receptor activity
Facts GPCR's
- 60% of drug targets are GPCR's
- Mostly Monomers or Homodimers
- 7-Transmembrane Receptor (synonym for GPCR)
-eg. Muscarinic AchR, Dopamine D2 Receptors (antipsychotic drug target), opiod receptors, GABA B
G Proteins
GTP binding Heterotrimers
- Activated by GPCR's
-Classified based on their alpha subunit
(Gs, Gi, Go, Gq and G11)
Causes of tolerance
Tolerance usualy occurs for drugs working on GPCR's
GPCR is:
-internalized (Phosphorylation of activated GPCRs by GRK & internalized by B arrestin)
-expressed less
-Signaling is decoupled between GPCR and G-Protein
RNAi
RNA inhibition is when RNA's silence genes by interupting translation
- miRNA (endogenous) and siRNA (exogenous)
- Part of Gene regulation
Spike protein
Viral surfacr protein wich is for host cell attachment and or entry
MicroRNA
Around 20nt
Silences mRNA
Ernährung und Mitochondrien
Zucker ist schlecht fuer mitochondrien da sie auf hochtouren laufen und somit freie O radikale bilden da viele elektronen die e transportkette umgehen und zum O kommen.
Bei ketogener ernaehrung laufen sie normal und vermehren sich sogar
Exitatory neuron
Pre synaptic Neuron that releases glutamate
Glutamate receptors
Receptors that recieve the exitatory signal.
Ionotropic (iGluR):
NMDA (N-methyl-D-Aspartat)
AMPA
Kainate
Metabotropic (mGluR):
Perisynaptic astrocytes
Astrocytes (type of glia cell) are beside the synapse and have transporters taking up NT thereby influencing synaptic transmission
BDNF
- Brain derived neurotrophic factor
- Bind TrkB (Tropomyosin receptor kinase B) (a RTK)
- funxtion: neuronal&synaptic growth, survival & differentiation
CO2 and bloodvessel tonus
CO2 is indirectly vasodilating via formation of acidic hydrogenbicarbonate which lowers ph which causes vasodilation
For local regulatuon of bloodflow. Tissue with more co2 gets more blood
Hyperventilation (to much breathing per necessity/exercise done) causes hypokapnie (little co2) and thereby respiratory alkalose (konstriktion, especialy in brain)
Hecheln causes hyperkapnie and thereby azidose
UV
A Penetrates deepest into skin but least dangerous (longest)
B causes cancer and skinburn
C penetrates least but most dangerous
Doesnt reach earth (shortest)
Some sunscreens and antibiotics (fluoroquinolone) are photosensitized carcinogens
Fettsäurenaufnahme
Die Fettsäurenaufnahme dient der Speicherung ungenutzter Nahrungsenergie. Dazu werden Triacylglyceride aus dem Blut (z.B. aus Chylomikronen und VLDL) durch die Lipoproteinlipase der Adipozyten hydrolysiert und als freie Fettsäuren aufgenommen.
Chylomikronen
Chylomikronen sind Lipoproteine, die dem Transport von Nahrungsfetten, vor allem Triglyceride und fettlösliche Vitamine (A, D, E, K ), vom Dünndarm ins Blut dienen. Daneben befördern sie auch noch geringe Mengen von Cholesterin und Phospholipiden.
Lipoproteine
Micell agregate aus TAG, cholesterin, Phospholipide, apoproteine
- Chylomikronen (Für nahrungsfett)
- Very Low Density Lipoprotein (VLDL)
- Intermediate Density Lipoprotein (IDL)
- Low Density Lipoprotein (LDL)
- Lipoprotein (a) (Lp(a))
- High Density Lipoproteins (HDL)
Jede Klasse umfasst eine Familie von Partikeln mit unterschiedlicher Proteinzusammensetzung. Die Dichte wird insbesondere durch den Lipidanteil pro Partikel bestimmt: Chylomikronen enthalten am meisten Lipide und sind daher am wenigsten dicht.
Leukozyten
Neutrophile, Lymphozyten, Monozyten, Eosinophilen und Basophile.
Pro- & Präbiotika
Probiotika leben
Präbiotika sind nahrung für microorganismen
Pyruvat transport über mitochondrien membran
Pyruvat wird deshalb mithilfe eines Pyruvat-Carriers (Pyruvat/H+-Symport bzw. Pyruvat/OH-Antiport) ins Mitochondrium transportiert.
Ort gluconeogenese
Leber und nieren (v.a.)
Ort ketogenese
Ketogenese findet in den Mitochondrien der Leber statt. Aus 2 Acetyl-CoA -> Acetoacetyl Coa gebildet. + acetyly coa -> hmg coa -> ketokörper
Uses 3 Acetyl-CoA
Gluconeogenese
Pyruvat -> glucose
Aminosäuren, glycerol, kurzkettige fettsäuren, pyruvat und laktat können alle entweder zu pyruvat oder einer zwischenstufe der glykolyse umgewandelt werden
Diabetes Type I
Die Erkrankung Typ-1-Diabetes ist eine Autoimmunerkrankung Dabei greifen körpereigene Auto-Antikörper die insulinproduzierenden Betazellen in der Bauchspeicheldrüse an und zerstören diese.
kein insulin -> Zu viel glucose im blut
arthritis
Osteoarthritis, the most common form of arthritis, involves the wearing away of the cartilage that caps the bones in your joints. Rheumatoid arthritis (aka Rheuma) is a disease in which the immune system attacks the joints, beginning with the lining of joints
Cholecystokinin
wird im oberen Duodenum (Zwölffingerdarm) sowie im darauffolgenden Jejunum (Leerdarm) in enteroendokrinen Zellen (entero: darm, endokrin: hormon) produziert. Die Ausschüttung des Hormons wird durch Fett- und Aminosäuren im Nahrungsbrei angeregt.
Zielorgane von Cholecystokinin sind Gallenblase und Pankreas.
CCK regt die Pankreassekretion an
bewirkt gleichzeitig eine Kontraktion der glatten Muskulatur der Gallenblasenwand.
Es stimuliert die Motorik von Dünndarm und Dickdarm.
spielt bei der Entstehung von Angst und Panik sowie bei Angst- und Panikerkrankungen (Phobien) eine Rolle.
für das Sättigungsgefühl verantwortlich.
Gastrin
Bei dehnung magen ausgeschüttet
Gastrin oder Polypeptid 101 (PP 101) ist ein Peptidhormon des Magen-Darm-Trakts und übt – neben anderen Wirkungen – den stärksten Reiz für die Produktion von Magensäure aus. Strukturell ist es eng verwandt mit Cholecystokinin. Trägt zum sätzigungsgefühl bei.
Noradrenalin and adrenalin
Both epinephrine and norepinephrine can affect your heart, blood sugar levels, and blood vessels (open in airways). However, norepinephrine can also make your blood vessels become narrower, increasing blood pressure.
NT and a hormone
Adrenergic receptors
The cardiovascular alpha adrenergic receptors evoke vasoconstriction, the cardiovascular beta receptors evoke vasodilation and cardiac stimulation
Glucose polymere
Stärke
Cellulose
Glykogen
Antigen drift
Punkt mutation
RAAS
Juxtaglomere zellen in niere produzieren renin, ein enzym das angiotensinogen aus der leber spaltet zu angiotensin I was in der lunge durch ACE zu angiotensin II umgewandelt wird, was die freisetzung von aldosteron in der nebennierenrinde startet. Und sonstige blutdruckerhöhung wie ADH, vasokonstriktion und salzretention in niere
Fettsäuren namen
Palmitinsäure C16
Stearinsäure C18
Nucleotid
Nucleosid + 1/2/3 phosphat(e)
NMP/NDP/NTP
-
- 1 / 87
-
Lernkarten
Zirbeldrüse
(epiphyse)
-produziert melatonin
IL-10
Entzüngungshemmend
wirkt gegen IL-6, IL-8 und TNFa
TRP-Chanels
42
22
7
Schmerz rezeptor
drei ASIC proteine agregieren -> schmerzreiz auslösbar (nicht zwingend)
-unter 7 grad un düber 42 grad ausgelöst
-löst schmerz und angst aus
ph sensibel. ph tief-> aktiviert schmerz rezeptoren (agregation)
NF-kB
Transcription Factor that increases
IL-6, IL-10 and TNFa
-High in many chronic diseases
- Transcription factor NF-kB is produced during non-akute stress (cortisol) (meditation lessens this effect -> meditation changes gene transcription)
CREB
Transkriptionsfactor (aktiviert durch adrenalin, also akuter stress)
- hemmt NF-kB (sie wirken beide in einem ggw)
- erhöht IL-10
Cortisol cortisone
Cortisol released by adrenal glands (nebennieren) in the adrenal cortex (nebennierenrinde) in zona fasciculata (middle, sugar)
Becomes cortisone enzmyaticaly (less active, used medically)
Thyroid hormones
Produced by the thyroid gland in the neck.Main hormones are triiodothyronine (T3) and thyroxine (T4).T3 is the active form, affecting processes like metabolism, growth, and heart rate.T4 is the inactive form, mainly converted to T3 in tissues.Hypothalamic-pituitary-thyroid axis regulates their release.Roles in metabolism, growth, cardiovascular health, and CNS effects.
Iodine taets
I 131 ( i 127 is natural isotope) is produced in nuclear decay cascades.
Its radioactive and gets concentrated in thyroid as thyroid takes up I from bloodstrean.
Thus by taking I tablets you saturate the thyroid leaving the I131 dispersed over the body
Konrad Lorenz
- Konrad Lorenz (1903-1989)
- Austrian zoologist
- Co-founder of ethology (study of animal behavior) - Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1973
- Known for: * Imprinting theory in birds * Comparative behavioral studies * "On Aggression" (book)
- nazi
Tage gleichen sich an
Wellsley effect
Chess tournement 6h calories
Burns thousands if calories if your a grand master
Nash equilibrium
Optimal (social) behaviour
Darwin
Didnt invent evolution but natural selection
Second guy of natural selection didnt get any credit
Evolution is about
Reproduction not survival.
Survival is only as a means of reproduction.
Old zebra sacrifices
Dont sacrifice for good of the species (OG evolution myth) but they behave for passing on as many copies of their genes as possible.
This means sacrificing for 200 other individuals that carry alot of your genes.
Ways to maximize copies of genes in next generation
- individual selection (reproducing yourself)
-> sexual selection (competes with natural selection, eg colorful fish)
- forego being agressive to another individual that is protecting you from another individual (rock scisors paper equilibrium)
- kin selection (enhance reproductive sucess of a relative)
-
Juri nikolajev
Extrem erfolgreiche therapie
25 - 30 sogar 40 tage
Depression, schizophren, zwangsstörungen, phobien
Riesige studie durchgeführt nach diesen behandlungen.
8000 patienten 70% besser 47% 6 jahre später besser (psychologische krankheiten)
Asthma, exzeme etc auch besser.
Vom staat der SU repliziert und bestätigt.
Sanogenese tritt ein
Fasten physiologie
Minderung:
Blutdruck
Atemfrequenz
Energieverbrauch
Minderung der spiegel:
TAG
Insukin
Glucose
Cholesterol
Minderung stoffe:
Histamin verschwindet. Bronchial asthma geheilt (unmoglich in schulmedizin)
40 jahre in SU fasten komplikationen
Keine
Otto buchinger
Militärarzt
Nach 2 mal fasten geheilt vom rollstuhl welcher er wegen rheuma hatte
Fasten uni
Charitee berlin groeste uniklinik europas hat einen ganzen stockwerk fuer fastenkuren
Krankenkassen zahlen
E sotffwechsel fasten
1 phase: glucose und fett
Glucose erschoepft nach 24h
2 phase:
Fettverbrennung 96%, protein verbrennung 4%
(Sparsam mit protein umgegangen)
Sobalt 80% fett verbraucht:
3 phase: dringend nahrung da proteine verwendet werden
Ratten so gut wie pinguine (4monate)
Moeglichkeit zum fasten allgemeiner mechanismus fuer alle tiere.
Gerentologie
Wissenschaft des alterns
Fasten und chemotherapeutika
Chemotherapeutika 3 fach dosis überlebt während fasten. Ohne fasten tod oder geschädigtes herz und hirn.
Repliziert worden
Krebs zellen fasten
Kein glucose
Chemotherapeutika wirken stärker auf krebs zellen
Lead agression
Led levels correlate with crime 10 years later
Bones of driminals show more lead in bones
Classification of influenza viruses
- Hemagglutinin (H) and Neuraminidase (N) are specific to influenza viruses.
- Hemagglutinin (H):
- Binds to host cell receptors
- Initiates viral entry
- Neuraminidase (N):
- Cleaves sialic acid on host cell surface
- Allows new viruses to exit infected cells and spread
Both crucial for influenza life cycle.
- Basis for influenza classification, e.g., H1N1, H3N2.
- number is type of N and H
- there are other minor surface proteins but they arent as important so arent part of viral classification / nomenclature
Surface protein
- Protein located on the outer layer of a cell or virus.
- Involved in interactions with the environment or other cells.
Key roles:
- Attachment / entrance / infection
- Signal reception
- Immune response evasion
In bith capsulated and uncapsulated viruses
Pump vs Transporter vs Passive diffusion
- Pump uses ATP
- Transporter (active or passive) no ATP
uniporter
symporter
antiporter
- passive diffusion: not saturable like other two but verry slow
eg. glucose uptake in intestine is through Na/glucose symporter on apikal side and throguh glucose uniporter on basal side
GABA A
GABA A:
pentameric, 2x alpha, 2x beta, gamma
α2-GABAA receptor means at least one of its alpha subunits is alpha 2
α1-GABAA receptors: sedation, motor-dyscoordination
α2-GABAA receptors: analgesia, anxiolysis, muscle relaxation
α3-GABAA receptors: analgesia, muscle relaxation, motor-dyscoordination
α5-GABAA receptors: analgesia, cognitive impairment
Orthosteric vs Allosteric ligand
Orthosteric: primary (endogenous) binding site of the receptor.
- can be an agonist or antagonist
Allosteric: not endogenous binding site
Agonist types
All influence the activity of a receptor. (Activity is defined as the response in a biological assey of the effect of the receptor)
Full agonist (efficacy at 1 at max concentration)
Superagonist (efficacy over endogenous ligand, requires that endogenous ligand has efficacy under 1)
Partial agonist (efficacy under 1 at max concentration)
(=partial antagonist)
Co-agonists (multiple ligands necessary for biological response)
Inverse agonist (lowers activity compared to unbound state)
Efficacy (max value on y axis) compared to native ligand
Antagonists
Block receptor and dont have effect on receptor activity
Facts GPCR's
- 60% of drug targets are GPCR's
- Mostly Monomers or Homodimers
- 7-Transmembrane Receptor (synonym for GPCR)
-eg. Muscarinic AchR, Dopamine D2 Receptors (antipsychotic drug target), opiod receptors, GABA B
G Proteins
GTP binding Heterotrimers
- Activated by GPCR's
-Classified based on their alpha subunit
(Gs, Gi, Go, Gq and G11)
Causes of tolerance
Tolerance usualy occurs for drugs working on GPCR's
GPCR is:
-internalized (Phosphorylation of activated GPCRs by GRK & internalized by B arrestin)
-expressed less
-Signaling is decoupled between GPCR and G-Protein
RNAi
RNA inhibition is when RNA's silence genes by interupting translation
- miRNA (endogenous) and siRNA (exogenous)
- Part of Gene regulation
Spike protein
Viral surfacr protein wich is for host cell attachment and or entry
MicroRNA
Around 20nt
Silences mRNA
