Business English 2 Grammar

- we can use modals and other phrases to talk about the probability that smth. will happen in the future

• 100% certainty: will, be certain to
• 95-100% deduction: must, can't
• 80% expectation: should/n't, ought (not) to, be (un)likely to
• 30-70% uncertainty: may (not), might (not), could
• 0% certainty: won't

- when we are certain smth. will happen we use will and be certain to

• Toyota will present their car at the Paris show

- when we are certain smth. will not happen we use won't

• I'm sorry, she is on vacation. She won't be back until tomorrow

- we can use probably and definitely with will and won't

• she'll probably be at the meeting
• she probably won't be at the meeting

- we use must and can't to show that smth. is vertain because it is logical from the evidence, this is called deduction

• there's no answer from her phone, she must be in a meeting
• both the meeting rooms are empty, she can't be in a meeting

- when we expect that smth. will happen we use should, ought or be likely to

• they should arrive now
• our profits are likely to improve next year

- when we expet that smth. will not happen we use shouldn't, ought not to or be unlikely to

• I have all the information I need now, there shouldn't be any problem

- when we are uncertain we use may, might or could, the meaning is perhaps

• I might have more news
• it could take a long time

- there is no real difference between these three modals in this context

- the negative form are may not and might not

• I have a suggestion, you might not agree, but listen

- for different degrees of probability in the past we use modal verb + have + past parcitible

• certainty: you'll have seen, I'm sure
• deduction: she must have been in a meeting; she can't have been in a meeting
• expectation: they should have arrived by now
• uncertainty: the meeting might not have started yet
• certainty: you won't have seen 

- this language area is sometimes calles speculating about the past, in this context certainty is really assumption 

- be careful with the idea of possibility, because it refers to two different things: uncertainty and ability

• it's possible they will go bankrupt (uncertainty; they might go bankrupt)
• it's possible to make this in a large size (ability; we can make this in a large size)

need an object

• we cut/lowered/raised/reduced the budget

don't need an object

• costs went down/fell/declined/rose

slow, slight, gradual, steady, quick, rapid, significant, sharp, substantial, dramativ

by adding -ly they become adverbs

- to make the passive we use to be and a past participle

• Intel produces millions -- millions are produced 
• he is shipping the goods -- the goods are being shipped
• he raised interest rates -- interest rates were risen
• he was asking me -- I was being asked 
• they have chosen the design -- the design has been chosen

- the object in the active sentence (million of chips/interest rates) moves to the front in the passive sentence and becomes the new subject

- we form negatives and questions in the same way as in the active sentences

• the new design hasn't been chosen
• has the new design been chosen?

- in the active sentences above the person or organization who does the action is important

- in the passive sentence above the person or organization who dies the action is not mentioned, it might be::

• unimportant; clear from the situation; unknown

- instead, the important information is either the actions (raised/chosen) or the things affected (millions of chips/ the goods)

- we often use the passice to talk about systems, processes and procedures. Language is often specialized and technical

- to show a sequence in a process we use inking words like:

• firstly/first of all, then, the next spep is, next, after that, later, finally, the final stage

- in the passice examples the person or organization that does the action is not mentioned. If we want to say who dies the action, we use by

• the goods are being shipped next week by our supllier in China

- verbs which usually take objects are called transitive verbs (raise)

- verbs which usually take no objects are called intransitive verbs (go up to)

! increase can use both ! taxes were increased last year

- a passive can be used to keep the focus of a paragraph

- the second sentece starts with a word that relates to the subject of the first sentence

• Hasso Platter is a German entrepeneur. He founded SAP
• SAP is a worl leader in business software. It was founded by

- both of the above are good style

- passives are frequent in formal writing generally, for example in reports and legal documents

- a typical context for formal / impersonal language is a complaint

- active:

• we ordered ... and the courier delivered ...

- passive:

• ... were ordered and they were delivered ...

- passives are used in phrases with it to report formally what people believed or said

• It was agreed / claimed / suggested that...

- the verbs believe, expect, know, report, say, think, suppose, understand are often used in the present simple passive followed by an infinitive (to do)

• the Hungarian economy is expected to expand 

- to refert to the past we use the same verbs with to have done

• credit card companies are believed to have suffered 

- to refer to an activity in progress at the moment, we use the same verbs with to be doing

• Pfizer is known to be looking at the possibility

- some verbs have two objects, we can:

• give, lend, offer, promise, sell, send, take smth. to sb
• book, buy, keep, make, prepare save smth. for sb
• ABB gave us a large order
• ABB gave a larger order to us

- the first form, without to, ist more usual

- each way can be made passive, one of the objects becomes the subject of the passive sentence, the other stays as an object

• we were given a large offer by
• a large offer was given by

- when a profesional person does some work for us we can use have something done

• we have our accounts audited by
• we're going to have a new chair by

- we can use get in place of have in most cases, this is more informal

• we got the contract checked by

- to be born is a passive form but does not have an obvious passive meaning 

• I was born in a little town

- some verbs are followed by to + infinitive:

• they wish to become...; we're managing to improve...
• plans and decisions (aim, arrange, choose, decide, intend, plan, prepare)
• expectations (demand, deserve, expect, hope, want, wish, would like)
• promises and refusals (fail, guarantee, offer, promise, refuse, threaten)
• other common verbs (can/can't afford, agree, learn, pretend, seem, tend, train, wait)

- most of these verbs can also be followed by a noun or ponoun:

• prepare to take; prepare a plan
• verb + to + infinitive ist also used in these cases: to find out; how to use; be going to, be able to, have to, need to

- some verbs are followed by an object + to + infinitive

• advise, allow, ask, cause, encourage, expect, force, help, invite, order, pay, prefer, persuade, remind, teach, tell, train, want, warn
• they told us to wait here; he persuaded the bank to lend him money

- after make and let we use the bare infinitive without to:

• i made them check...; the let us keep...

- some verbs can alsobe followed by a that, in everyday speech we can leave the word that:

• we decided to cancel the meeting = we decided that we would cancel the meeting

- some verbs can be followed by -ing or to + infinitive and the meaning of the verb changes:

• remember/forget: we use remember/forget doing for memories (i remember seeing...; i'll never forget making...)
• we use remember/forget to do for actions someone is supposed to do (i must remember to call her; i forgot to make...)
• regret: we use regret doing wehn we are sorry about smth. that happened in the past (i regret saying no)
• we use regret to do when we are sorry for smth. we are going to do, such as giving bad news
• try: we use try doing wehn we make an experiment (i'll try talking to him; i'll try to talk)
• stop: we use stop doing when we end an action (we stopped buying...)
• mean: we use mean doing when one thing results in or involves another (globalization means being...; i meant to let you know...)
• go on: we use go on doing when we continue doing smth. (they went on reading...; he went on to start...)

- verbs of perception include: feel, hear, listen to, notice, see, watch

- these verbs can be followed by either by an object + -ing or a bare infinitive (without to)

• if we see/hear only part of the action we use the -ing form:
• i saw her giving her presentation = i sar part of the presentation)
• i heard the maching making noises = i heard the noise and it continued afterwards
• if we see or hear the whole action from beginning to end we use the bare infinitive without to:
• i saw her give her presentation = i saw the whole presentation
• i heard the machinge make a noise = i heard the noise and it stopped

- some verbs can be followed by -ing or to + infinitive and there is little change in meaning, these include: begin, continue, intend, start

• what do you intend doing / to do about it?
• however, with these verbs we do not usualy have two -ing forms together:
• it was starting to get dark (not starting getting)
• the verbs like, love, prefer, hate can be followed by either form, to + infinitive suggests smth. is a good/bad idea, the -ing form shows your feelings:
• i like to do ..., but i don't like doing them

- the passive form of verb + -ing is verb + being + past participle

• if the share price falls any more, we risk being taken over by a larger company. It's not worth being sued over this issue

- the passive form of verb + to + infinitive is verb + to be + past participle

• i thnk i deserve to be given a pay rise
• i don't want to be seen as a time-waster

• upward movement (go up, increase, rise, climb)
• rapid upward movement (take off, rocket, double)
• downward movement (go down, decrease, fall, drop, decline)
• rapid downward movement (collapse, crash, slump, plummet, halve)
• highs and lows (peak, reack a peak, fall back, bottom out, hit a low, pick up)
• change in size (grow, expand, shrink, contract)
• stability and volatility (stay the same, be flat, be unchanged, be stable, fluctuate, vary, move within a range, level off)
• good and bad (improve, get better, strengthen, recover, deteriorate, get worse, weaken)
• individual points (stand at, be at, be above, be below)
• states (be up/down, stay high/low, remaining high/low)

- irregular verb forms:

• go - went - gone; grow - grew - grown; rise - rose - risen; fall - fell - fallen

- nouns:

• a rise, growth, an improvement, a fall, a drop, a peak, a recovery, a halving, a doubling

- prepositions:

• sales increased from ... to ...
• there was an increase in sales of ...
• sales increased by ...

- verbs are used in different ways, some are always followed by an object

• we'll raise/lower/cut the budget

- other verbs are never followed by an object

• inflation will rise/fall/go up

- some verbs can be used with or without an object

• we'll increase/improve our market share
• our market share will increase/improve

- we can use adverbs to talk about the speed and amount of change

• speed: sales grew... quickly, rapidly, gradually, steadily, slowly
• amount: sales grew... significantly, considerably, moderately, to some extend, slightly, marginally

- note the relationship between verb + adverb and adjective + noun

• sales grew steadily
• there was steady growth in sales

- a graph/chart may have: 

• a horizontal and a vertical axis; a solid/dotted/dashed line; a segment; a shaded area; bars

- a table has rows and columns with headings

- (line) graphs, (bar) charts, (pie) charts, tables

- a decimal point is written as a dot, not as a comma like in some languages. It is spoken as a point

• 6.5 = six point five
• 0.25 = zero point two five

- a comma can be used to separate thousands from hundreds

• 6,200 = six thousand two hundred (AmE and BrE)
• 6,280 = six thousand two hundred eighty (AmE)
• 6,280 = six thousand two hundred and eighty (BrE)

- note also: 

• 2m = two million
• 2.5m = two point five/two and a half million

- linking words are used for analyzing trends, they can join parts of a sentence or link across sentences

• although, and, basically, because, clearly, firstly, however, in addition, in fact, in general, in my opinion, in particular, in relation to, in spite of, so, therefore, whereas

- modal verbs ae can, could, will, would, might, may, shall, should, must

- modal verbs are auxiliary verbs, they are used with other main verbs

- the verb that follows a modal verb is an infinitive without to: sorry, I must go now

- two modal verbs can not be put together

- modal verbs have only one form, so there's no -s in the third person singular and no form with -ing, -ed, etc.

- the modal verbs can and must have very similar alternatives:

• be able to (for can)
• have to (for must)
• the rules above do not apply on these modal verbs, they can be combined with other modals, ...
• I'm sorry I won't be able to come; I had to cancel my flight

- questions are made by puting the modal in front of the subject

• can I?; Could you?; Shall I?

- negatives are made by putting NOT immediately after the modal

• I cannot (I can't); I may not; She should not (she shouldn't)

- modal verbs show the speaker's attitude/feelings about a situation

- modal verbs can be used in differetn ways with different meanings, you only know the meaning from the context:

• I could get to work in 30 minutes (ability; past time)
• Could you pass the salt? (request; present time)
• that could be difficult (uncertainty; future time)

- to talk about ability we use can and can't (or cannot) 

• can you deliver in two weeks?
• I can't speak German

- for the special case of things that we are not able to do because of rules we can also use mustn't

• I'm sorry, you can't/mustn't park here

- we somethimes use be able / unable to instead of can / can't, this is common in writing

• we are now able to track goods in transit

- to talk about general past ability we use could / could not

• in my twenties I could play tennis quite well

- to talk about one specific past avtion it is less common to use could, instead we use was / were able to, managed to and succeeded in (+ing)

• I was able to / managed to install the new software

- could can be used with a specific past action where there is a verb of senses (see, fell, hear, understand)

• I could / managed to understand most of what he said

- in questions and negative sentences we can use could, was / were able to and managed to

• could you / were you able to / did you manage to speak to your boss today?
• sorry I couldn't / wasn't able to / didn't manage to do it today

- will is used as a future form, but will also has modal uses

• I think I'll go home now (spontaneous decision)
• I'll give you a lift (an offer to help)
• I'll give you my support (promise)
• the engine won't start (certainty about smth. (not) working)
• will you hold this please (request)
• will you have some more coffee? (offering smth.)

- further uses of will include probability in the past and conditionals