An enzyme found in the stomach & An enzyme responsible for the break down of proteins into smaller polypeptides & a protein

An enzyme responsible for the break down of proteins into smaller polypeptides

Is essential for nerve impulse propagation

Involves the outflow of negative ions to be depolarise the membrane

Involves the influx of negative ions to depolarise the membrane

Is initiated by potassium ion movements

involves the outflux of positive ions to depolarise the membrane

Is essential for nerve impulse propagation

card2brain.ch

What kind of digestion occur in the stomach

Only mechanical digestion

mechanical and chemical digestion

only chemical digestion

depends on food

Only mechanical digestion

mechanical and chemical digestion

only chemical digestion

depends on food

Which is not a function of the pancreas

To churn food into smooth paste

To regulate blood sugar levels

To produce enzymes that break down carbs, proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids

To produce sodium bicarbonate to neutralize stomach

To churn food into smooth paste

To regulate blood sugar levels

To produce enzymes that break down carbs, proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids

To produce sodium bicarbonate to neutralize stomach

The liver produces

Sodium bicarbonate

amylase

bile

Sodium bicarbonate

amylase

bile

Most nutrients from food are absorbed through

The esophagus

Walls of the small intestine

Pancrease

Walls of the large intestine

The esophagus

Walls of the small intestine

Pancrease

Walls of the large intestine

The function of insulin is to

Allow the absorption of nutrient through small intestine

Speed up the contractions of the stomach

Break down proteins

Enable glucose to enter the body cells

Allow the absorption of nutrient through small intestine

Speed up the contractions of the stomach

Break down proteins

Enable glucose to enter the body cells

Which substance is released by cells of the duodenum and may provide important blood borne signal in regulation of hunger?

Glycogen

Pepsin

Renin

CCK

Glycogen

Pepsin

Renin

CCK

Leptin is a chemical which is relesed from

Fat cells

pituitary gland

paraventricular hypothalamus

pancreas gland

Fat cells

pituitary gland

paraventricular hypothalamus

pancreas gland

What is secreted when blood sugar is high?

Insulin

What is the target of ACTH?

Most cells

thyroid glands

mammary glands

adrenal cortex

Most cells

thyroid glands

mammary glands

adrenal cortex

What controls hormone release from the anterior pituitary gland?

Muscle contraction

Peripheral nervous system

Hormones released from hypothalamus

Action potentials from thalamus

Muscle contraction

Peripheral nervous system

Hormones released from hypothalamus

Action potentials from thalamus

Which hormone is released in response to decreases in blood glucose concentration?

Insulin

Glucagon

Calcitonin

Insulin

Glucagon

Calcitonin

The autonimuc nervous system has

Two afferent neurons

Two efferent neurons

Both afferent and efferent fibres

Two afferent neurons

Two efferent neurons

Both afferent and efferent fibres

Nerves conducting impusles toward the central nervous system are

Afferent

An action potential is casued by an influx of these ions into the cell

Potassium and sodium

potassium

sodium

calcium

Potassium and sodium

potassium

sodium

calcium

What does the Endocrine system do?

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The endocrine system includes gland which secrete hormones into the blood stream. It regulated the metabolism and development of most body cells and body systems through feedback mechanisms

What are hormones?

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Hormones are chemical messenger molecules that are made by cells in one part of the body and causes changes in cells in another part of the body.

Hormones are released by glands or specialized cells into the blood circulation

Cell-to-cell communication methods

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Endocrine: Hormones are released into the blood and bind to distant target cells
Paracrine: Hormones act locally by diffusion from its source to target cells in the neighborhood
Autocrine: Cells secrete a hormone that binds to autocrine receptors on that same cell leading to changes in the cell

Peptide and Protein Hormones Synthesis

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They are synthesized in the rough ER of the endocrine system as large proteins and then form smaller pro-hormones in the ER. Enzymes then cleave the pro-hormones to smaller, activ hormones and inactiv fragments. The vesicles are stored within the cytoplasma. The hormones are released when the secretory vesicles fuse with the cell membrane

Name 3 Peptide and Protein hormones

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Oxytocin, Insulin, Glucagon

Common principle for peptide hormones

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Coding of several hormones by one gene
Depending on the posttranlational precessing, different hormones may be produced from the same precursor in different tissues

Glycoprotein hormones

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Proteins with carbohydrate chains
Major effect of the carbohydrate connection is that it increases the biological half life considerably
Glycoprotein have a half life of hours instead of minutes

Name 3 steroid hormones

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Glucocorticoids, Mineralcorticoids, Sex steroids

Steroids

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Because the steroids are highly lipid soluble, once they are synthesized the simply diffuse across the cell membrane and enter the interstitial fluid and the blood, where they are mainly transported bound to proteins.

Once they are released from the transport proteins, the hormones diffuse through the cell membrane of their target cells

3 distinc zones of the adrenal cortex

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Zona glomerulose
Zona fasciculata
Zona reticularis

Secretion of adrenocortical hormones by these 3 distinct zones

Amines

Derivative of amino acids
Mainly tyrosin: Catecholamines, thyroid hormones

Catecholamine synthesis

Synthesized in a series of enzymatic reaction
Starting from the amino acid tyrosine and then serve as neurotransmitters and hormones
Adrenalin and noradrenaline are formed in the adrenal medulla

Catecholamines have a dual function

They are peripheral hormones (primarily adrenaline & noradrenaline)
They act as neurotransmitters in the nervous system (dopamine)

What are derivatives of arachidonic acid?

Hormone-like messenger molecues
They are not produced at a specific site but in many places through the body
target cells ofter in vicitiny of the site of their secretion
Important regularty molecules: Eicosanoids
Most are linked to defense against damage and pathogens

Where are hormone receptors located?

On the target cell membrane for peptide, protein and catecholamine hormones
In the cytoplama for steroid hormones
In the nucleus for thyroid hormones

Hormoned receptors

The first step of a hormone's action is to bind to specific receptors at the target cell
The binding of hormones usually initiates a cascade of reaction in the cell
Hormone receptors are large proteins and each receptor is usally specific for a single hormone

Hormone receptor types

Intracellular recptors: for hydrophobic hormones (steroid, thyroid)
Extracellular receptors: for hydrophillic hormones (proteins, catecholamines)

Types of extracellular receptors

Enzyme-linked receptors
G-protein coupled receptors

Intracellular receptors

Steroid and thyroid hormones bind with protein receptors inside the cell
The are lipid soluble so the cross the membrane and interact with receptors in the cytoplasma or nucleus
The hormone receptor complex then binds with a promotor sequence of the DNA and activates or respresses transcription of specific genes and formation of mRNA

Insulin receptor (enzyme linked receptor)

Combination of 4 subunits held together by disulfide linkages
The recptor tyrosine kinase activity begins a cascade of cell phosphorylation steps that increases or decreases the activity of enzymes that mediate the effects of glucose, fate and protein metabolism

Physiology and Anatomy 1

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Physiology and Anatomy 1

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